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Ducks, Geese, and Swans 95

particularly in heavy‐bodied waterfowl. Bumblefoot is a serious disease in large waterfowl and is
fatal in many cases as it often progresses from damaged skin to infected damaged skin to infected
deeper tissues, eventually causing tendonitis, joint infections, and/or osteomyelitis (bone infection
and destruction). For this reason, birds should not be kept on cement floors without padding.
Substrates used in housing waterfowl should allow the foot to sink into the substrate with each step
(Ritchie et al. 1994). Appropriate substrate includes carpet (when housed indoors), artificial turf,
pea gravel, sand, and natural soil.
Waterfowl in captivity should be examined regularly for signs of foot lesions, particularly at the
central footpad and the bony prominences of the toe joints. As a preventive measure, in addition
to using appropriate substrates, massage the foot with a small amount of Vermont’s Original Bag
Balm monthly or whenever the bird is handled. If calluses or irritated areas are visible, warm‐
water pulse massage and foot massage treatments with bag balm should be done twice per week to
prevent bumblefoot from progressing. Prevent feathers from contacting oil or bag balm as the bird
may lose its waterproofing if it becomes greasy.

Splayed Legs

Leg splaying can result when a young bird slips on unstable substrate, stretching ligaments beyond
normal range. If caught early, it can be corrected by using VetRap™ (3M) or similar material to
“soft‐splint” legs in a natural position (this is also sometimes called “hobbling”). The feet should
be separated by normal standing/walking distance. The bird should be able to walk and maintain
normal behavior with the splint on its legs. Standing and walking while splinted is important to
maintain muscle tone and development. Depending on the severity of the problem, the legs should
remain splinted for a few days to a week. Adjust the splint daily in a newly hatched bird to accom-
modate the rapid growth (Altman et al. 1997). See Goodman et al. (2017) for information regarding
management of orthopedic problems in wild waterfowl.

Mud-balling
Mud‐balling occurs when material, such as mud or feces, adhere and form a ball around the foot
of a young bird. If the problem becomes severe, the bird may be unable to walk or move naturally.
Mud‐balling sometimes occurs in nature in habitats with clay soil and in brooders during captive‐
rearing. Most cases that develop in brooders are due to wet feces sticking to the feet and combining
with wood shavings or other substrates. Early intervention is important to prevent foot or leg
deformity or death from exhaustion. See Chapter 8 for photographs and more information on
mud‐balling (Welty and Baptista 1988).

Trauma
Damage to the wings, face, and beak may occur when a bird comes into contact with wire fencing
or occasionally in a territorial dispute with another bird. Injuries can be very severe, causing blind-
ness and even death of a patient. If a bird is observed pacing a fenced area in escape attempts or
coming into physical contact with it, remove the bird from the pen immediately until privacy
screening or a solid barrier on the perimeter fence can be installed. If bleeding or injury is evident,
stop bleeding with pressure, wash the area, and apply topical water‐soluble antibiotic cream to
prevent secondary infection. Older chicks sometimes act as bullies, and may damage the growing
flight feathers of other chicks by nipping at them; always be attentive to how groups of chicks are
getting along with each other.