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Toxicity of Fungicides Chapter | 45 579

VetBooks.ir (1) in the initial stages, the use of emetics, gastric lavage, Arce, G.T., Gordon, E.B., Cohen, S.M., Singh, P., 2010. Genetic toxicol-
ogy of folpet and captan. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 40 (6), 546 574.
or activated charcoal may be helpful for removal of resid-
ATSDR, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 1994.
ual material from the GI tract; (2) oxygen should be pro-
vided immediately to meet oxygen demand; (3) body Toxicological Profile for Pentachlorophenol. U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Agency for Toxic Substances and
temperature should be lowered (use of cool baths, cool
Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA.
sponging, or placing the animal in the shade or in a cool,
Atterwill, C.P., Aylard, S.P., 1995. Endocrine toxicology of the thyroid
quiet room); (4) phenothiazine tranquilizers IM are
for industrial compounds. In: Thomas, H., Hess, R., Waechter, F.
advised to decrease exertion and stress and to facilitate
(Eds.), Toxicology of Industrial Compounds. Taylor & Francis,
handling of the animal; however, these should not be used London, pp. 257 280.
to sedate or comatose the animal; (5) balanced electrolyte Ballantyne, B., 2003. Toxicology of fungicides. In: Marrs, T.C.,
solution should be administered to prevent dehydration; Ballantyne, B. (Eds.), Pesticide Toxicology and International
and (6) the animal should be removed immediately from Regulation. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester, UK. Available
the exposure site. In the case of metallic poisoning, there from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/0470091673.ch6
is no satisfactory treatment of organomercurial toxicosis Bretveld, R.W., Thomas, C., Scheepers, M.G., et al., 2006. Pesticide
in farm or pet animals. Once developed, brain lesions are exposure: the hormonal function of the female reproductive system
disrupted? Reprod. Biol. Endocrinol. 4, 30 43.
irreversible, and treatment in such cases is meaningless.
Cohen, S.M., Gordon, E.B., Singh, P., et al., 2010. Carcinogenic mode
Traditional chelators such as dimercaprol (BAL) or
of action of folpet in mice and evaluation of its relevance to humans.
sodium thiosulfate have been recommended for many
Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 40 (6), 531 545.
years but have little or no value due to their poor affinity
Costa, L.G., 1997. Basic toxicology of pesticides. Occup. Med. State Art
for organomercury compounds (Gupta, 2010b). Rev. 12, 251 268.
Costa, L.G., 2008. Toxic effects of pesticides. In: Klaassen, C.D. (Ed.),
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CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE 76th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, pp. 883 933.
DIRECTIONS Cremlyn, R., 1978. Pesticides: Preparation and Mode of Action. Wiley,
Hoboken.
Fungicides have a low to moderate toxicity. However, sev- Dreisig, S., Taxvig, K.C., Birkhøj, K.M., et al., 2013. Predictive value of
eral fungicides, such as alkyldithiocarbamic acid (manga- cell assays for developmental toxicity and embryotoxicity of cona-
nese, zinc and ammonium salts), halogenated substituted zole fungicides. ALTEX 30, 319 330.
monocyclic aromatics (dinocap), carbamic acid derivatives Eaton, D.L., Gallagher, E.P., 1997. Introduction to the principles of toxi-
cology. In: Glenn, S., Charlene, I., McQueen, A., Gandolfi, J. (Eds.),
(maneb and zineb metabolites and ethylenethiuram mono-
Comprehensive Toxicology: General Principles. Pergamon, New
sulfide), ferbam, mancozeb and maneb metabolites, HCB,
York, NY, pp. 1 38.
benzimidazoles (benomyl and carbendazim), bis(tri-n-
Flaws, J.A., Hirshfield, A.N., 1997. Reproductive, development, and endo-
butyltin)oxide, chloroalkylthiodicarboximides (captafol and
crinology toxicology. In: Boekelheide, K., Chapin, R., Hoyer, P.B.,
folpet), and tridemorph are known to cause developmental Harris, C., McQueen, C.A., Gandolfi, A.J., Sipes, I.G. (Eds.),
toxicity and oncogenesis. More than 80% of all oncogenic Reproductive and Endocrine Toxicology. Pergamon, New York, NY.
risk from the use of pesticides derives from a few fungi- Gammon, D.W., Moore, T.B., O’Malley, M.A., 2010. A toxicological
cides; only a small number of pesticide-related deaths from assessment of sulfur as a pesticide. In: Krieger, R. (Ed.), Hayes’
fungicides have been reported. Some fungicides are known Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology, third ed., vol. 2. Elsevier, New
to disrupt the endocrine system and may lead to reproduc- York, NY, pp. 1889 1901.
tive and developmental abnormalities. Based on teratoge- Gardiner, J.A., Kirkland, J.J., Klopping, H.L., Sherman, H., 1974. Fate
of benomyl in animals. J. Agric. Food Chem. 22 (3), 419 427.
nicity, several fungicides including cycloheximide have
Gordon, E.B., 2010. Captan and folpet. In: Krieger, R. (Ed.), Hayes’
been deregistered or banned in many countries but are still
Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology, third ed., vol. 2. Elsevier, New
used in other, less regulated areas of the world. Other fun-
York, NY, pp. 1915 1949.
gicides are undergoing reevaluation because of changing Gray, L.E., Ostby, J.S., Kelce, W.R., 1994. Developmental effects of
regulatory policies; suspected toxicity, particularly as carci- an environmental antiandrogen: the fungicide vinclozin alters sex
nogenic, mutagenic, or toxic to reproduction; and incom- differentiation of the male rat. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 125,
plete or outdated toxicity database. 46 52.
Gupta, P.K., 1986. Pesticides in the Indian Environment. Interprint, New
Delhi.
REFERENCES Gupta, P.K., 1988. Veterinary Toxicology. Cosmo, New Delhi.
Gupta, P.K., 2006. WHO/FAO guidelines for cholinesterase-inhibiting
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