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5.3 Maturation 85

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Figure 5.1 Though there are reasons that might be found to hand‐rear apes, it is common practice in zoos to
reintroduce offspring to their mother or a conspecific surrogate as soon as possible. Source: Jeroen Stevens.

how they can learn a rich suite of skills and 5.3 Maturation
characteristics from a ‘parent’ figure (e.g.
Gardner and Gardner 1998). This explains 5.3.1 Weaning and Independence
why, when hand‐rearing great apes in zoos
nowadays, it is considered best practice (if The weaning period which takes place in
possible) to return the infant to its mother or many animals broadly refers to the period of
a conspecific surrogate as soon as possible time where a young animal will gradually
(Porton and Niebruegge 2006; see Figure 5.1). gain independence from its parents, learning
A third type of imprinting less relevant to to be one of its own species; this may coin-
zoo species is habitat imprinting, where a cide with the gradual replacement of moth-
young animal learns the characteristics of a er’s milk with adult diet. Early social
suitable breeding habitat (Davis and Stamps development in long‐lived social mammals
2004). This is most important to migratory has important implications for adult behav-
species travelling long distances over diver- iour, particularly in taxa which exhibit stable,
gent environments, and needing to learn how long‐term bonds such as great apes, ele-
to return to a particular type of environment phants, and dolphins (de Waal and Tyack
for breeding. In a zoo setting, natal homing 2009). Non‐human great apes wean relatively
(the process by which animals return to their late compared to other animals; on average
birthplace to reproduce) is largely redundant weaning occurs at around six years of age
since animals cannot move large distances, (Galdikas and Wood 1990). Like the time‐
but animals may still associate conditions sensitive imprinting period described above,
learned in early life with conditions suitable the weaning period can also be a sensitive
for breeding. Natal homing has been demon- time and crucial for certain learning experi-
strated in freshwater turtles Graptemys koh- ences. For example, domestic piglets social-
nii (Freedberg et al. 2005) and marine turtles ised prior to being weaned were scored by
(Lohmann et al. 2013) for example; caregivers their caregivers as being more ‘relaxed/
of these species in zoos should make sure contented’, indicating that key social skills
environmental conditions are kept consistent could be learned before they gain independence
from early life to breeding age. from the mother (Morgan et al. 2014). An