Page 329 - The Welfare of Cattle

306 the WeLfare of CattLe

can be transmitted to the new born calf in the maternity pens include Mycobacterium avium subsp.
paratuberculosis (MAP), Escherichia coli, and Salmonella sp. The association between calving
site and incidence of calf morbidity has been reported in several studies. A study conducted in New
York dairy herds reported that calves born in herds using calving pens were less likely to experi-
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ence diarrhea compared to those born in herds using stanchions or loose housing areas. In a study
that enrolled 122 Swedish dairies, calves born in herds using single-cow calving pens were at a
lower risk for respiratory disease compared to those born in herds using cubicles or group calving
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pens. In Minnesota, herds with 50–90 cows, use of single-cow pens and removal of bedding from
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pens between calvings were associated with lower incidence of diarrhea. Furthermore, studies by
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Waltner-Toews and others reported a lower overall mortality in calves born in single-cow pens
compared to those born in unexpected or unusual environmental sites on the farm. In contrast, a
controlled field trial reported no differences in risk for calf- hood diseases (diarrhea and respiratory
diseases) during the first 90 days of life between calves born in single-cow calving pens compared
to calves born in multiple-cow calving pens. However, a longitudinal study based on the same field
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trial by Pithua and others later reported that that using individual calf pen for calving delayed expo-
sure to MAP in calves and provided an effective strategy for reducing peripartum MAP transmis-
sion risks in herds focusing on reducing the impact of paratuberculosis. Consequently, single-cow
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calving pens, which are cleaned after each, are recommended to dairy producers to reduce exposure
of calves to pathogens.

Colostrum Management

Negligible transfer of antibodies occurs across the ruminant cotyledonary placenta. As a result,
calves rely on the ingestion of colostrum and absorption of maternal antibodies across the intestines
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via pinocytosis during the first 24–48 hours after birth. Calves that fail to ingest and absorb suf-
ficient colostrum experience increased risk of morbidity and mortality due to diarrhea, enteritis,
septicemia, arthritis, omphalitis, and pneumonia. 9,10 Despite vast information on the importance of
feeding colostrum, prevalence of failure of passive immunity (FPI) in calves remains high, rang-
ing at 19.2% in the United States. Calves fail to ingest and absorb sufficient colostral components
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because of several reasons, including shortage of colostrum, poor-quality colostrum, delay in col-
lecting or feeding colostrum, storage conditions, lactation number, and dystocia. In other instances,
calves are not fed sufficient colostrum due to their low perceived economic value, for instance, dairy
bull calves. While beef calves are left to nurse from the cow on their own, intervention through feed-
ing colostrum by a nipple bottle or oroesophageal tube is necessary for dairy calves. Studies reported
that prevalence of FPI of colostral immunoglobulins when dairy calves were allowed to nurse from
the dam was 61.4% compared to 19.3% and 10% when calves were fed colostrum by a nipple bottle
and oroesophageal tubing, respectively. In addition to conferring passive immunity, colostrum is
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a highly digestible source of carbohydrates, protein, and fat for the calf. Quality of colostrum prior
to feeding to calves can be improved by assessing the immunoglobulin concentrations using several
instruments such as refractometers and hydrometers. In instances where transmission of infectious
agents such as MAP or Salmonella through colostrum is a concern, pasteurization of colostrum
should be considered. Furthermore, standard operating procedures on dairy farms should include
monitoring of colostral feeding practices in calves by using farm adapted tests such as serum total
protein determination by refractometry. From a calf welfare standpoint, colostrum is necessary for
all new born calves for long-term health and production.

Separation of Calf after Birth

While beef calves remain with the cow until 6–7 months of age, dairy calves can be separated
at 1–24 hours after parturition. Dairy calves are fed colostrum within the first 24 hours followed by