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foster representation of disadvantaged and powerless groups; and the need to capture the insights

of citizens” (Baker, Addams, & Davis, 2005, p. 491).

Democratic institutions scholars Abigail Williamson and Archon Fung define a public

hearing as “an open gathering of officials and citizens, in which citizens are permitted to offer

comments, but officials are not obliged to act on them or, typically, even to respond publicly.”

(Williamson & Fung, 2014)

Also known as public inquiries, public hearings are typically organized as a way to gather

public opinions and concerns on political issues before a legislature, agency, or organization makes

a decision or takes action. Public hearings can be called on less likely open topics but mostly are

held on pre-drafted legislation, agendas, or action items as a means by which government officials

most often comply with legal requirements mandating evidence of participation by members of

the general public and residents of affected areas with no particular real input interest.

Critique of Public Hearings

My findings reveal that the public hearing as an approach for civic engagement no longer

serves the public nor government due to its limitations, which range from incomplete input caused

by the inability to provide adequate outreach to minority and disadvantaged groups, adversarial

format fostering debate, and approach that is biased toward the expert model of information

dissemination (Baker et al., 2005; Lando, 2003). While common forms of public participation are

intended to educate stakeholders and public officials, the public hearing often falls short of the

intended aim (Innes & Booher, 2004; Lando, 2003; Wang, 2001). The practice of deliberative

democracy thus offers a promising alternative to the traditional public hearing and other

participatory approaches to civic engagement and public participation. While many scholars

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