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The Romans

The Romans called their system of government a republic from the Latin res ("thing") and publicus ("of the
people"). As the Roman Empire expanded, the more far-flung citizens were left out of the process since
the decision-making process was carried out at the forum in central Rome. Although deeply flawed from
our modern perspective (again, the citizenry who had a say were privieged men), the Romans did give us
the Senate, an enormously powerful political body who were indirectly elected.

Magna Carta

The Magrna Carta, or “great document,” was another move toward democracy. The controversial King
John ran afoul with the Church and was excommunicated. To return to the Pope’s good graces, he made
concessions that turned the barons of England against him. He then conceded absolute power by signing
the Magna Carta in Runnymede in 1215. This made even the king bound by English law.

Structures of Power

Citizens of the United States are subject to the powers of the three major branches of the federal
government: the executive, the legislative, and the judicial.

The legislative branch is established by Article One of the Constitution and sets forth the idea of the
Congress, which comprises the House of Representatives and the Senate. Each state elects members to
the House of Representative based on its population; however, each state elects two members of the
Senate for a term of six years. Article One also enumerates the powers of Congress, which range from
the regulation of international commerce to the establishing of new post offices.

The judicial branch is established by Article Three. It states that:

The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts
as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior
Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services
a Compensation which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office.

Supreme Court judges are appointed by the executive branch and confirmed by the legislative branch.
Note that judges hold their positions “during good Behavior” (a phrase that is usually interpreted to mean
for as long as they’re alive).

The executive branch is established by Article Two and calls for the election of a president and vice
president. The president wields enormous power but it is checked by the legislative and judicial branches.
For example: the president is the supreme commander of the US military but cannot declare war without
congressional approval. As we saw in previous lessons, this system of checks and balances is a crucial
feature in the constitutional system.

The Constitution Controversy: Federalists and Anti-Federalists

In the late 1780s the Constitution’s ratification was fraught with controversy. On one side were the Anti-
Federalists, who opposed the stronger centralized government that the Constitution would create. They
were opposed by the Federalists, a group which included Alexander Hamilton. The Federalists were