Page 158 - Environment: The Science Behind the Stories

but that we have a responsibility to manage them wisely. The manager in Arizona and New Mexico, Leopold embraced the
conservation ethic employs a utilitarian standard, stating that government policy of shooting predators, such as wolves, to
we should allocate resources so as to provide the greatest good increase populations of deer and other game animals.
to the greatest number of people for the longest time. Whereas At the same time, Leopold followed the development of
preservation aims to preserve nature for its own sake and for ecological science. He eventually ceased to view certain spe-
our aesthetic and spiritual benefit, conservation promotes the cies as “good” or “bad” and instead came to see that healthy
prudent, efficient, and sustainable extraction and use of natu- ecological systems depend on the protection of all their inter-
ral resources for the good of present and future generations. acting parts. Drawing an analogy to mechanical maintenance,
Pinchot and Muir came to represent different branches of he wrote, “to keep every cog and wheel is the first precaution
the American environmental movement, and their contrasting of intelligent tinkering.”
ethical approaches often pitted them against one another on It was not just science that pulled Leopold from an
policy issues of the day. For instance, Pinchot supported dam- anthropocentric perspective toward a more holistic one. One
ming Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite National Park to pro- day he shot a wolf, and when he reached the animal, Leopold
vide drinking water for San Francisco, considering this “the was transfixed by “a fierce green fire dying in her eyes.” He
highest possible use which could be made of” the valley. Muir perceived intrinsic value in the wolf, and the experience
was aghast, and proclaimed, “Dam Hetch Hetchy! As well dam remained with him for the rest of his life, helping to lead
for water tanks the people’s cathedrals and churches, for no him to an ecocentric ethical outlook. Years later, as a Uni-
holier temple has ever been consecrated by the heart of man.” versity of Wisconsin professor, Leopold argued that people
Despite their differences, both Muir and Pinchot repre- should view themselves and “the land” as members of the
sented reactions against a prevailing “development ethic,” same community and that we are obligated to treat the land
which holds that people should be masters of nature and which in an ethical manner. In his 1949 essay “The Land Ethic,”
promotes economic development without regard to its negative he wrote:
consequences. Both Pinchot and Muir left legacies that rever-
berate today in the ethical approaches to environmentalism. All ethics so far evolved rest upon a single premise: that
Today these schools of thought have spread globally, and the individual is a member of a community of interdepend-
people worldwide are wrestling with how to balance preserva- ent parts. . . . The land ethic simply enlarges the bounda-
tion, conservation, and economic development. In Costa Rica, ries of the community to include soils, waters, plants, and
leaders and citizens felt that development had gone too far animals, or collectively: the land. . . . A land ethic changes
and that precious ecosystem services were being degraded and the role of Homo sapiens from conqueror of the land-
lost, threatening the country’s future. The nation responded by community to plain member and citizen of it. . . . It implies
establishing an extensive system of national parks, eventually respect for his fellow-members, and also respect for the
protecting 24% of its land area—one of the highest percent- community as such.
ages of any nation in the world. Beyond this preservationist
policy, many conservationist policies were implemented to
encourage the sustainable use of soil, water, and forests. Costa
Rica’s program to pay for ecological services mixes these
approaches, encouraging the preservation of forests within
lands actively used for agricultural production to meet overall
goals of conservation and sustainable development.

WEIGHInG THE ISSUES

PRESERVaTIon anD ConSERVaTIon Do you identify more CHAPTER 6 • Ethi C s, E C ono mi C s, A nd s ustA in A bl E dE v E lopm E nt
with the preservation ethic, the conservation ethic, both, or
neither? Think of a forest, wetland or other important natu-
ral resource in your region. Give an example of a situation in
which you might adopt a preservation ethic and an example of
one in which you might adopt a conservation ethic. Are there
conditions under which you'd follow neither, but instead adopt
a “development ethic”?

Aldo Leopold’s land ethic inspires many people

As a young forester and wildlife manager, aldo Leopold
(1887–1949; FIguRE 6.6) began his career in the conservation- FIguRE 6.6 Aldo Leopold, a wildlife manager and environ-
ist camp after graduating from Yale Forestry School, which mental philosopher, articulated a new relationship between
Pinchot had helped found just as Roosevelt and Pinchot were people and the environment. In his essay “The Land Ethic” he
advancing conservation on the national stage. As a forest called on people to include the environment in their ethical outlook. 157

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