Page 365 - Environment: The Science Behind the Stories

traffic congestion, take up less space than road networks, and
emit less pollution than cars. A 2005 study calculated that
each year rail systems in U.S. metropolitan areas save taxpay-
ers a total of $67.7 billion in costs for congestion, consumer
transportation, parking, road maintenance, and accidents—far
more than the $12.5 billion that governments spend to subsi-
dize rail systems each year. As long as an urban center is large
enough to support the infrastructure necessary, both train and
bus systems are cheaper, more energy-efficient, and cleaner
than roadways choked with cars (FIGURE 13.11).
In Portland, the bus system carries 60 million riders per
year, and an average bus keeps an estimated 250 cars off the
road each day. Portland also boasts downtown streetcars and
one of the nation’s leading light rail systems (FIGURE 13.12).
Metro policy encourages the development of self-sufficient (a) MAX light rail train
neighborhood communities in the new-urbanist style along
the rail lines. In recent years the bus system has faced service
cutbacks and fare hikes in the wake of a costly overhaul, but 250 Bus
light rail ridership continues to grow as the system expands Rail
with new lines to outlying areas. 200

6000 Annual passenger-miles (millions) 150
5000
BTU per passenger-mile 4000 50
100

3000
0
2000
1994
1990
1986
1998
Year
1000
(b) Portland transit ridership trends 2002 2006 2010
0
Bus Heavy Light
Commuter rail rail rail Automobile FIGURE 13.12 An excellent light rail system is part of an
urban planning strategy that has helped make Portland one
(a) Energy consumption for different modes of transit of America’s most livable cities. Here, bus ridership is stable
while ridership on the MAX light rail system is growing quickly as
the system expands.
$1.80
$1.60 Vehicle Roadway Parking The nation’s most-used train systems are the extensive
costs
costs
operation
Cost per passenger-mile $1.20 heavy rail systems in America’s largest cities, such as New York
$1.40
City’s subways, Washington, D.C.’s Metro, the T in Boston,
$1.00
and the San Francisco Bay area’s BART. Each of these rail sys-
$0.80
tems carries more than one-fourth of its city’s daily commuters.
$0.60
In general, however, the United States lags behind most
$0.40
$0.20 nations in mass transit. Many countries, rich and poor alike,
have extensive and accessible bus systems that ferry citizens
$0.00 within and between towns and cities cheaply and effectively.
Bus Heavy Light
Commuter rail rail Automobile Automobile Automobile And whereas Japan and many European nations have devel-
(medium city)
(large city)
(small city)
rail
oped whole systems of modern high-speed “bullet” trains
Express. This train connects Boston and Washington, D.C.,
(b) Operating costs for different modes of transit (FIGURE 13.13), the United States has only one, Amtrak’s Acela
via New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and it travels
FIGURE 13.11 Rail transit consumes less energy (a) and costs more slowly than most bullet trains.
less (b) per passenger mile than bus or automobile transit. The United States chose instead to invest in road networks
Data from Litman, T., 2005. Rail transit in America: A comprehensive evaluation of for cars and trucks largely because its population density was
benefits. © 2005 T. Litman. low and gasoline was cheap. As energy costs and population
Automobile traffic creates two types of operating costs rise, however, mass transit becomes increasingly appealing,
364 that are not created by rail traffic. What are they? and citizens begin to clamor for train and bus systems in their

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