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compared to the settlers along the coast. They were generally darker and had dark curly
hair similar to the Aborigines of Australia. Based on these differences bio-anthropologists
classified them as the Papuan Race. Another classification which ignored these differences
was as the Melanesian Race.
As happened in Papua, the migratory dispersal from the north to Papua New Guinea
only existed as far as the eastern Jayapura coast, and from the Manus Islands to Samoa
(Tanudirjo, 2011). The Austronesian speaking migrants seemed to be hesitant to penetrate
the remote interior of this large island. Many assumed that the indigenous inhabitants had
already established sophisticated cultures so that these cultures dominated and influenced
the periphery cultures. The interior of Papua was one of the oldest centers of agricultural
development in the world. Another reason was related to the cultures of the migrant
settlers. The Austronesian speaking settlers, especially in the eastern part of Indonesia
lived in a maritime environment, so they preferred living along the coast to moving into the
interior. Movement in the interior was challenging and risky with its thick vegetation and
mountainous areas, all of which would have been unfamiliar to the Austronesians (Kirch,
1997). Or perhaps, those who attempted journeys to the interior fell victim to illnesses
which they did not have immunity to and so people over time learned to avoid the interior.

Entering the Proto-historic Era
The protohistory of Indonesia, a transition period between prehistory and history, is
commonly described as starting around two thousand years ago. During this period, the
thriving interactions between the indigenous settlers and the outside world are recorded
in texts produced by the cultures they came into contact with. For example, the Ramayana
and Mahabharata epics which were probably written between the fourth century B.C.
and the second century of the Christian era, mentioned Sumatra (Suvarnabhumi) and
Java (Jawadwipa). The names show that Indonesia and India had a relationship at that
time (Tanudirjo, 2011). Moreover, in the early Han in China, writing by Ban Gu (32 – 92 AD)
mentions that King Wu established a trading business with India which passed through
South East Asia. Chinese traders traveled south using ships owned by Austronesians. This
is supported by the discovery of ceramics dating back to the 2nd century BC in the Han
Dynasty, found in Sumatra and other regions in Indonesia.
During this period, the seafaring was widespread and intensified contacts between
Indonesians and traders from mainland South East Asia, China, India and Europe
intensified. This international sea trade was driven by increasing demand from people

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