Page 130 - Su'udi Relations with Eastern Arabi & Uman (1800-1870)

sphere of Su‘udi influence since the revival of the Su‘udi state under Amir
Turk! b. ‘Abd Allah. Although its leaders paid nosakah, al-Kuwayt continued
to maintain friendly relations with the successive rulers of al-Riyad. Both Faysal
and his successor, ‘Abd Allah, kept an agent at al-Kuwayt, but his presence
there merely attested to the existence and durability of a mutual understanding
between the two countries.1087
The neutral stand of al-Kuwayt’s ruler toward the conflict in al-Bahrayn and
‘Uman during the period under consideration prevented the animosity of the
neighbouring states, and thus reinforced the country’s stability. Al-Bahrayn,
on the other hand, was more vulnerable to developments in the mainland and
to Su‘udT relations, partly because of its location and partly because of the
recent political changes there.
During the 1860s, al-Bahrayn witnessed one of the most difficult periods
in its history. Muhammad b. Khalifah, its ruler, had been making
inconsistent political affiliations, laying claim now to the Persians, now to the
Ottomans, and, at times, seeking British protection as well.1088 While
Muhammad’s policies were dictated by circumstances relating to the current
political and economic conditions of al-Bahrayn, they seemed to invite foreign
intervention. The Persians and the Ottomans took the ruler under their wings
and claimed supremacy over the island. The British government, on the other
hand, denied such claims and insisted on viewing al-Bahrayn as an
independent state.
Through mutual agreements, Britain’s influence gradually increased,
contributing, in the long run, to relative stability on the island, but having
repercussions on Muhammad’s rule and fate nonetheless. The primary British
intention was to discipline Muhammad by preventing him from levying imposts
on the trading ships at al-Qatlf and carrying off their property. 1089
Furthermore, they wanted to put an end to Muhammad’s reliance on the
Persians and the Ottomans.1090
In May 1862, Capain Felix Jones, the political Resident in the Gulf, ordered
the seizure of two of the best warships in al-Bahrayn, and forced Muhammad
b. Khalifah to conclude a perpetual treaty of peace and friendship.1091 In this
treaty, Muhammad pledged to observe the basic provisions of the Maritime
Truce signed by the ‘Umanl coastal chiefs in 1843, entailing abstention from
war, piracy, and the importation of slaves by sea.1092 However, the terms of
the Anglo-Bahraynl agreement extended beyond those of the Maritime Truce.
Under the agreement’s fourth article, the ruler of al-Bahrayn was obliged to
allow British Indian subjects to reside and carry on their trade in the territories
of al-Bahrayn upon payment of an ad valorem duty of five percent on their
goods.1093
Three years after the conclusion of the treaty, Muhammad began to suffer its
consequences, and his relations with the British became strained. Apparently
for lack of income sufficient to meet his personal expenses and further financial
requirements,1094 Muhammad began to surcharge the trading Indians and
allegedly made some exactions without legal justification.1095 This behaviour
angered the British. Consequently, Colonel Pelly, who had succeeded Jones in
the Residency, visited al-Bahrayn and demanded that Muhammad b. Khalifah
return the money to the traders, which the latter promised to do.1096 However,
as Muhammad’s promise continued unfulfilled, Pelly was provoked into
resorting to force to enact the payment. Therefore, he seized “Dinar”, a

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