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104 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

variables to see if there is a significant negative correlation between the two. If
we do find this to be the case, then the hypotheses is substantiated. That is, giv-
ing more training to pilots in handling crowded space in midair will reduce safety
violations. If a significant negative correlation is not found, then the hypotheses
would not have been substantiated. By convention in the social sciences, to call
a relationship “statistically significant,” we should be confident that 95 times out
of 100 the observed relationship will hold true. There would be only a 5%
chance that the relationship would not be detected.

Statement of Hypotheses: Formats

If–Then Statements
As already stated, a hypothesis is a testable statement of the relationship among
variables. A hypothesis can also test whether there are differences between two
groups (or among several groups) with respect to any variable or variables. To
examine whether or not the conjectured relationships or differences exist, these
hypotheses can be set either as propositions or in the form of if–then state-
ments. The two formats can be seen in the following two examples.

Example 5.15 Employees who are more healthy will take sick leave less frequently.

Example 5.16 If employees are more healthy, then they will take sick leave less frequently.

Directional and Nondirectional Hypotheses

If, in stating the relationship between two variables or comparing two groups,
terms such as positive, negative, more than, less than, and the like are used, then
these hypotheses are directional because the direction of the relationship
between the variables (positive/negative) is indicated, as in Example 5.17 below,
or the nature of the difference between two groups on a variable (more than/less
than) is postulated, as in example 5.18.

Example 5.17 The greater the stress experienced in the job, the lower the job satisfaction of
employees.

Example 5.18 Women are more motivated than men.
On the other hand, nondirectional hypotheses are those that do postulate a
relationship or difference, but offer no indication of the direction of these rela-
tionships or differences. In other words, though it may be conjectured that there
would be a significant relationship between two variables, we may not be able
to say whether the relationship would be positive or negative, as in Example
5.19. Likewise, even if we can conjecture that there will be differences between
two groups on a particular variable, we will not be able to say which group will
be more and which less on that variable, as in Example 5.20.