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PART III: OTHER METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION 255

ing biases. Observational studies can provide rich data and insights into the
nature of the phenomena observed. They have offered much understanding of
interpersonal and group dynamics. Interestingly, observational data can also be
quantified through tabulations.

Data Collection Through Mechanical Observation
There are situations where machines can provide data by recording the events
of interest as they occur, without a researcher being physically present. Nielsen
ratings is an oft-cited example in this regard. Other examples include collection
of details of products sold by types or brands tracked through optical scanners
and bar codes at the checkout stand, and tracking systems keeping a record of
how many individuals utilize a facility or visit a web site. Films and electronic
recording devices such as video cameras can also be used to record data. Such
mechanically observed data are error-free.

Projective Methods
Certain ideas and thoughts that cannot be easily verbalized or that remain at the
unconscious levels in the respondents’ minds can usually be brought to the sur-
face through motivational research. This is typically done by trained profession-
als who apply different probing techniques in order to bring to the surface
deep-rooted ideas and thoughts in the respondents. Familiar techniques for gath-
ering such data are word associations, sentence completion, thematic appercep-
tion tests (TAT), inkblot tests, and the like.
Word association techniques, such as asking the respondent to quickly associ-
ate a word—say, work—with the first thing that comes to mind, are often used
to get at the true attitudes and feelings. The reply would be an indication of what
work means to the individual. Similarly, sentence completion would have the
respondent quickly complete a sentence, such as “Work is—.” One respondent
might say, “Work is a lot of fun,” whereas another might say “Work is drudgery.”
These responses may provide some insights into individuals’ feelings and atti-
tudes toward work.
Thematic Apperception Tests (TAT) call for the respondent to weave a story
around a picture that is shown. Several need patterns and personality character-
istics of employees could be traced through these tests. Inkblot tests, another
form of motivational research, use colored inkblots that are interpreted by the
respondents, who explain what they see in the various patterns and colors.
Although these types of projective tests are useful for tapping attitudes and
feelings that are difficult to obtain otherwise, they cannot be resorted to by
researchers who are not trained to conduct motivational research.
Consumer preferences, buying attitudes and behaviors, product development,
and other marketing research strategies make substantial use of in-depth prob-
ing. TAT and inkblot tests are on their way out in marketing research since adver-
tisers and others now use the sentence completion tests and word association
tests more frequently. Sketch drawings, collages from magazine pictures, filling
in the balloon captions of cartoon characters, and other strategies are also being