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258 DATA COLLECTION METHODS

SETTING FROM WHICH DATA ARE GATHERED

Data can be collected in any one of the aforementioned ways in the natural envi-
ronment of the workplace. Data may also be collected in artificial lab settings
where variables are controlled and manipulated, or they can be gathered in the
homes of the respondents, on the street, in malls, or in a setting where a LAN
(Local Area Network) system is available. It is not unusual to find marketers con-
ducting what are known as intercept interviews in malls and fairs, to obtain vast
marketing information.

INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS OF SURVEYS

We have so far discussed instrument development for eliciting responses from
subjects within a country. With the globalization of business operations, man-
agers often need to compare the business effectiveness of their subsidiaries in
different countries. Researchers engaged in cross-cultural research also endeavor
to trace the similarities and differences in the behavioral and attitudinal responses
of employees at various levels in different cultures. When data are collected
through questionnaires and occasionally through interviews, one should pay
attention to the measuring instruments and how data are collected, in addition
to being sensitive to cultural differences in the use of certain terms. Surveys
should also be tailored to the different cultures as discussed below.

Special Issues in Instrumentations for Cross-Cultural Research
Certain special issues need to be addressed while designing instruments for col-
lecting data from different countries. Since different languages are spoken in dif-
ferent countries, it is important to ensure that the translation of the instrument to
the local language matches accurately to the original language. For this purpose,
the instrument should be first translated by a local expert. Supposing a compar-
ative survey is to be done between Japan and the United States, and the
researcher is a U.S. national, then the instrument has first to be translated from
English to Japanese. Then, another bilinguist should translate it back to English.
This back translation, as it is called, ensures vocabulary equivalence (i.e., that the
words used have the same meaning). Idiomatic equivalence could also become
an issue where some idioms unique to one language just do not lend themselves
for translation to another language. Conceptual equivalence, where the meanings
of certain words could differ in different cultures, is yet another issue to which
attention has to be paid. As stated earlier, the meaning of the concept “love” may
differ in different cultures. All these issues can be taken care of through good
back translation by persons who are facile with the relevant languages and are
also knowledgeable about the customs and usages in the concerned cultures.
The following examples culled from Business Week show the pitfalls in cross-
cultural advertising and emphasize the need for back translation of messages for
idiomatic and conceptual equivalence. Not only is the meaning lost in some
advertisement messages while literally translating the English words into the