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doi:10.1073/pnas.070039597; Katherine Woollett and Eleanor A. Maguire,
“Acquiring ‘the Knowledge’ of London’s L ayout Drives Structural Brain Changes,”
Current Biolog y 21, no. 24 (December 2011), doi:10.1016/j.cub.2011.11.018; Eleanor
A. Maguire, Katherine Woollett, and Hugo J. Spiers, “London Taxi Drivers and Bus
Drivers: A Structural MRI and Neuropsychological Analysis,” Hippocampus 16, no.
12 (2006), doi:10.1002/hipo.20233.
“the actions become so automatic”: George Henr y Lewes, e Physiolog y of C ommon Life
(Leipzig: Tauchnitz, 1860).
repetition is a form of change: Apparently, Brian Eno says the same thing in his excellent,
creatively inspiring Oblique Strategies card set, which I didn’t know when I wrote
this line! Great minds and all that.
Automaticity is the ability to perform a behavior: Phillippa L ally et al., “How Are Habits
Formed: Modelling Habit Formation in the Real World,” European Journal of S ocial
Psycholog y 40, no. 6 (2009), doi:10.1002/ejsp.674.
habits form based on frequenc y, not time: Hermann Ebbinghaus was the rst person to
describe learning cur ves in his 1885 book Über das G edächtnis. Hermann
Ebbinghaus, Memor y : A C ontribution to E xperimental Psycholog y (United States:
Scholar Select, 2016).

CHAPTER 12

this difference in shape played a signi cant role in the spread of agriculture: Jared
Diamond, Guns, G erms , and Steel: e Fates of Human Societies (New York: Norton,
1997).
It is human nature to follow the L aw of L east Effort: Deepak Chopra uses the phrase “law
of least effort” to describe one of his Seven Spiritual L aws of Yoga. is concept is
not related to the principle I am discussing here.
a garden hose that is bent in the middle: is analog y is a modi ed version of an idea Josh
Waitzkin mentioned in his inter view with Tim Ferriss. “ e Tim Ferriss Show,
Episode 2: Josh Waitzkin,” May 2, 2014, audio, https://soundcloud.com/tim-
ferriss/the-tim-ferriss-show-episode-2-josh-waitzkin.
“ it took American workers three times as long to assemble their sets”: James Surowiecki,
“B etter All the Time,” New Yorker, November 10, 2014,
https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/11/10/better-time.
addition by subtraction: Addition by subtraction is an example of a larger principle known
as inversion, which I have written about previously at
https://jamesclear.com/inversion. I’m indebted to Shane Parrish for priming my
thoughts on this topic by writing about why “avoiding stupidity is easier than
seeking brilliance.” Shane Parrish, “Avoiding Stupidity Is Easier an Seeking
Brilliance,” Farnam Street, June 2014, https://www.fs.blog/2014/06/avoiding-
stupidity.
those percentage points represent millions in tax re venue: O wain Ser vice et al., “East:
Four Simple Ways to Apply B ehavioural Insights,” B ehavioural Insights Team, 2015,