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Penguins 203

records. Penguin egg logs should also include documentation of fostered eggs (foster date, foster
pair identification) and dummy placement and removal dates.
Good records begin with individual bird identification. Adult penguins are typically identi-
fied by a band placed at the proximal end of one or both flippers. Types of flipper bands
include: cable ties, metal, plastic, and silicone. Chicks should be banded when more than one
chick is hand‐reared together or by 21 days of age for multiple chicks under parents. Colored
cable ties are used for short‐term identification but must be monitored for constriction and
replaced as chicks grow. Subcutaneous transponders implanted at fledging assure continuity
of identification if bands are lost.
Chick records must include parent IDs and nest location; egg ID (and weight when available),
incubation type and duration; chick ID, hatch date and time; reason if removed, rearing type
including parent‐feeding observations or hand‐rearing records. Chicks in the nest can be removed
briefly for weekly weights and returned. Hand‐reared chicks are weighed daily with food intake
recorded along with ambient room and brooder temperatures. For all chicks, observations of chick
behavioral responses and developmental stages should be recorded.

­ Incubation­of Eggs

Review Chapter 3 for general guidance on hatchery setup, egg handling, and incubation proce-
dures. Incubators and hatchers should be set up 2 weeks prior to the expected first egg of the sea-
son and monitored for temperature and humidity stability.
An egg management plan should be defined as pairs are identified and likely interventions are
anticipated. Apart from necessary interventions, eggs in nests need not be disturbed. However,
candling eggs under parents 10–15 days prior to expected‐hatch may enhance outcomes through
the removal of infertile eggs and the return or fostering of fertile eggs. Eggs can also be transferred
between zoos and aquariums at this time (Branch 2009).
Incubation parameters for penguins were established in the 1980s (Todd 1987b) and have since
been refined (Table 12.1). SeaWorld uses the Humidaire Model 21 for incubation and the Grumbach
Model S84 for hatching. Petersime and Rcom have also been used. Due to the relatively large size and
weight of penguin eggs, incubator turning mechanisms may be inadequate. Turners on Humidaire
incubators can be disabled with the racks secured in a level position to facilitate hand‐turning.
Natural incubation, where feasible, improves hatchability. SeaWorld analyzed hatchability
results over more than 20 years and found that viable eggs under parents for as little as 7–10 days
had better hatching success when compared to full‐term artificial incubation (SeaWorld San Diego,
unpublished data).
If eggs are removed, they are labeled with the egg log number and turning arrows using an indel-
ible marker. Eggs kept back for artificial incubation are immediately placed in the incubator on
their sides, for hand‐rotation seven times daily over 12 hours. Abandoned eggs in cold habitats may
become chilled. If not frozen, these eggs should be set out at room temperature to warm prior to
examination for damage and setting in the incubator as appropriate.
Eggs in the incubator are candled weekly to assess developmental progress. Penguin eggs are
thick‐shelled such that even a strong light source is insufficient to visualize structures in some spe-
cies. These eggs are treated as fertile.
Pipped eggs are moved to the hatcher and rotation is discontinued. If multiple eggs are hatching
simultaneously, eggs are partitioned to maintain egg‐to‐chick ID. A small rubber‐mesh‐covered
reservoir of warm water (95.5 °F/35.8 °C) is placed in the hatcher 24 hours later. This procedure