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C vaccine (turkey strain) only provides homologous protection NF-kappaB transcriptional activity. J. Virol. 82, 8224–8229. https://doi.
org/10.1128/JVI.02584-07.
(Cook et al., 1999). No vaccine currently exists for the subgroup Bao, X., Liu, T., Shan, Y., Li, K., Garofalo, R.P., and Casola, A. (2008b).
C duck strains of AMPV. Human metapneumovirus glycoprotein G inhibits innate immune
In the field, these vaccines perform well provided they are well responses. PLOS Pathog. 4, e1000077. https://doi.org/10.1371/
journal.ppat.1000077.
administered; however, disease is occasionally observed in young Bao, X., Kolli, D., Ren, J., Liu, T., Garofalo, R.P., and Casola, A. (2013).
poults. The occasional disease is thought to be due to the lack of Human metapneumovirus glycoprotein G disrupts mitochondrial
simultaneous exposure of the flock to the dominant population signaling in airway epithelial cells. PLOS ONE 8, e62568. https://doi.
of attenuated virions in the vaccine when using spay or drinking org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062568.
water delivery. Lack of simultaneous exposure means that some Baxter-Jones, C., Cook, J.K., Frazier, J.A., Grant, M., Jones, R.C., Mockett,
A.P., and Wilding, G.P. (1987). Close relationship between TRT virus
individuals become exposed to pools of passaged viruses within isolates. Vet. Rec. 120, 562.
which attenuated virions no longer dominate. Baxter-Jones, C., Grant, M., Jones, R.C., and Wilding, G.P. (1989). A
Inactivated vaccines must be administered via a parenteral comparison of three methods for detecting antibodies to turkey
rhinotracheitis virus. Avian Pathol. 18, 91–98.
route which is more inconvenient in the field. However, when Bäyon-Auboyer, M.H., Jestin, V., Toquin, D., Cherbonnel, M., and
used in conjunction with live vaccines these can be useful for Eterradossi, N. (1999). Comparison of F-, G- and N-based RT-PCR
protecting adult birds (Jones and Rautenschlein, 2013). protocols with conventional virological procedures for the detection and
Recombinant vaccines have also been developed and tested typing of turkey rhinotracheitis virus. Arch. Virol. 144, 1091–1109.
under experimental conditions and these had varying degrees of Bayon-Auboyer, M.H., Arnauld, C., Toquin, D., and Eterradossi, N. (2000).
Nucleotide sequences of the F, L and G protein genes of two non-A/
success (Qingzhong et al., 1994; Hu et al., 2011, 2017). To date non-B avian pneumoviruses (APV) reveal a novel APV subgroup. J. Gen.
no commercial recombinant vaccine is in use for controlling Virol. 81, 2723–2733.
AMPV infection. Bell, I.G., and Alexander, D.J. (1990). Failure to detect antibody to turkey
rhinotracheitis virus in Australian poultry flocks. Aust. Vet. J. 67, 232–
233.
Bennett, R.S., McComb, B., Shin, H.J., Njenga, M.K., Nagaraja, K.V., and
Perspectives Halvorson, D.A. (2002). Detection of avian pneumovirus in wild
AMPV is highly infectious and continues to be a problem in the Canada (Branta canadensis) and blue-winged teal (Anas discors) geese.
poultry industry requiring good farm management practices and Avian Dis. 46, 1025–1029. https://doi.org/10.1637/0005-2086(2002)
046[1025:DOAPIW]2.0.CO;2.
vaccination of flocks for disease control. Reports of new isolates Bennett, R.S., Nezworski, J., Velayudhan, B.T., Nagaraja, K.V., Zeman, D.H.,
continue around the world (Rivera-Benitez et al., 2014; Franzo Dyer, N., Graham, T., Lauer, D.C., Njenga, M.K., and Halvorson, D.A.
et al., 2017; Mayahi et al., 2017; Tucciarone et al., 2017) and (2004). Evidence of avian pneumovirus spread beyond Minnesota
may increase as new diagnostic tools with increased broad range among wild and domestic birds in central North America. Avian Dis. 48,
902–908. https://doi.org/10.1637/7208-051804R.
capability become available (Bayon-Auboyer et al., 1999; Franzo Biacchesi, S., Skiadopoulos, M.H., Tran, K.C., Murphy, B.R., Collins, P.L.,
et al., 2014; Lemaitre et al., 2018). The RG systems of subgroup and Buchholz, U.J. (2004a). Recovery of human metapneumovirus
A, B, C turkey and now C duck viruses have and will continue to from cDNA: optimization of growth in vitro and expression of
be indispensable for investigating virus pathogenicity, virus–host additional genes. Virology 321, 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
virol.2003.12.020.
interplay and ultimately help the design of better vaccines and Biacchesi, S., Skiadopoulos, M.H., Yang, L., Lamirande, E.W., Tran, K.C.,
control measures. However, the development of a RG system for Murphy, B.R., Collins, P.L., and Buchholz, U.J. (2004b). Recombinant
the subgroup D virus would be indispensable for these studies. human Metapneumovirus lacking the small hydrophobic SH and/or
Finally, the close relationships between AMPV-C and HMPV attachment G glycoprotein: deletion of G yields a promising vaccine
candidate. J. Virol. 78, 12877–12887.
means that studies on either virus may be transferable, accelerat- Biacchesi, S., Pham, Q.N., Skiadopoulos, M.H., Murphy, B.R., Collins,
ing our understanding or at least in some degree helping to direct P.L., and Buchholz, U.J. (2005). Infection of nonhuman primates with
future research ideas or indeed the creation of future ‘one health’ recombinant human metapneumovirus lacking the SH, G, or M2-2
Metapneumovirus projects. However, studies on these two protein categorizes each as a nonessential accessory protein and identifies
vaccine candidates. J. Virol. 79, 12608–12613.
viruses may not be applicable to the avian subgroup A, B and D Blount, R.E., Morris, J.A., and Savage, R.E. (1956). Recovery of
viruses. cytopathogenic agent from chimpanzees with coryza. Proc. Soc. Exp.
Biol. Med. 92, 544–549.
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