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410 Part 4 • Leading
endnotes

1. Most leadership research has 6. R. Kahn and D. Katz, “Leadership 16. See, for example, R. H. G. Field ing ‘B’: A Selective Level-of-
focused on the actions and respon- Practices in Relation to Productiv- and R. J. House, “A Test of the Analysis Review of the Field and
sibilities of managers and extrapo- ity and Morale,” in D. Cartwright Vroom Yetton Model Using Man- a Detailed Leader-Member Ex-
lated the results to leaders and and A. Zander, eds., Group Dy- ager and Subordinate Reports,” change Illustration,” Leadership
leadership in general. namics: Research and Theory, 2nd Journal of Applied Psychology Quarterly, Winter 2001, 515–51;
2. From the Past to the Present ed. (Elmsford, NY: Pow, Paterson, (June 1990): 362–66; J. T. Ettling R. C. Liden, R. T. Sparrowe, and
box based on D. S. Derue, J. D. 1960). and A. G. Jago, “Participation S. J. Wayne, “Leader-Member
Nahrgang, N. Wellman, and S. E. 7. R. R. Blake and J. S. Mouton, The Under Conditions of Conflict: Exchange Theory: The Past and
Humphrey, “Trait and Behavioral Managerial Grid III (Houston: More on the Validity of the Vroom Potential for the Future,” in G. R.
Theories of Leadership: An Inte- Gulf Publishing, 1984). Yetton Model,” Journal of Man- Ferris (ed.), Research in Personnel
gration and Meta-Analytic Test of 8. W. G. Bennis, “The Seven Ages agement Studies (January 1988): and Human Resource Manage-
Their Relative Validity,” Personnel of the Leader,” Harvard Business 73–83; C. R. Leana, “Power Re- ment, vol. 15 (Greenwich, CT: JAI
Psychology, Spring 2011, 7–52; and Review, January 2004, 52. linquishment versus Power Shar- Press, 1997), 47–119; G. B. Graen
D. A. Wren and A. G. Bedeian, The 9. F. E. Fiedler, A Theory of Lead- ing: Theoretical Clarification and and M. Uhl-Bien, “Relationship-
Evolution of Management Thought, ership Effectiveness (New York: Empirical Comparison of Delega- Based Approach to Leadership:
6th ed. (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley McGraw-Hill, 1967). tion and Participation,” Journal of Development of Leader-Member
& Sons, 2009), 345–46. 10. R. Ayman, M. M. Chemers, and F. Applied Psychology (May 1987): Exchange (LMX) Theory of Lead-
3. See D. S. Derue, J. D. Nahrgang, Fiedler, “The Contingency Model 228–33; and R. H. G. Field, “A ership Over 25 Years: Applying a
N. Wellman, and S. E. Humphrey, of Leadership Effectiveness: Its Test of the Vroom Yetton Norma- Multi-Domain Perspective,” Lead-
“Trait and Behavioral Theories Levels of Analysis,” Leader- tive Model of Leadership,” Jour- ership Quarterly, Summer 1995,
of Leadership: An Integration ship Quarterly, Summer 1995, nal of Applied Psychology (Octo- 219–47; and R. M. Dienesch and
and Meta-Analytic Test of Their 147–67; C. A. Schriesheim, B. J. ber 1982): 523–32. R. C. Liden, “Leader-Member
Relative Validity,” Personnel Tepper, and L. A. Tetrault, “Lease 17. For additional information about Exchange Model of Leadership:
Psychology, Spring 2011, 7–52; Preferred Co-Worker Score, Situ- the exchanges that occur between A Critique and Further Develop-
T. A. Judge, J. E. Bono, R. Ilies, ational Control, and Leadership the leader and the follower, see ment,” Academy of Management
and M. W. Gerhardt, “Personal- Effectiveness: A Meta-Analysis of A. S. Phillips and A. G. Bedeian, Review, July 1986, 618–34.
ity and Leadership: A Qualitative Contingency Model Performance “Leader Follower Exchange Qual- 22. J. B. Wu, A. S. Tsui, and A. J.
and Quantitative Review,” Journal Predictions,” Journal of Applied ity: The Role of Personal and In- Kinicki, “Consequences of Dif-
of Applied Psychology (August Psychology (August 1994): 561–73; terpersonal Attributes,” Academy ferentiated Leadership in Groups,”
2002): 765–80; and S. A. Kirk- and L. H. Peters, D. D. Hartke, and of Management Journal 37, no. Academy of Management Journal
patrick and E. A. Locke, “Leader- J. T. Pholmann, “Fiedler’s Contin- 4 (1994): 990–1001; and T. A. (February 2010): 90–106; S. S.
ship: Do Traits Matter?” Academy gency Theory of Leadership: An Scandura and C. A. Schriesheim, Masterson, K. Lewis, and B. M.
of Management Executive, May Application of the Meta-Analysis “Leader Member Exchange and Goldman, “Integrating Justice
1991, 48–60. Procedures of Schmidt and Hunt- Supervisor Career Mentoring as and Social Exchange: The Dif-
4. K. Lewin and R. Lippitt, “An Ex- er,” Psychological Bulletin, March Complementary Constructs in fering Effects of Fair Procedures
perimental Approach to the Study 1985, 274–85. Leadership Research,” Academy and Treatment on Work Relation-
of Autocracy and Democracy: A 11. See B. Kabanoff, “A Critique of of Management Journal 37, no. 6 ships,” Academy of Management
Preliminary Note,” Sociometry 1 Leader Match and Its Implications (1994): 1588–602. Journal (August 2000): 738–48;
(1938): 292–300; K. Lewin, “Field for Leadership Research,” Per- 18. SmartPulse, “How Willing Are S. J. Wayne, L. J. Shore, W. H.
Theory and Experiment in Social sonnel Psychology, Winter 1981, You to Step Outside Your Lead- Bommer, and L. E. Tetrick, “The
Psychology: Concepts and Meth- 749–64; and E. H. Schein, Or- ership Style ‘Comfort Zone’ and Role of Fair Treatment and Re-
ods,” American Journal of Sociol- ganizational Psychology, 3rd ed. Try New Techniques?” www wards in Perceptions of Organiza-
ogy 44 (1939): 868–96; K. Lewin, (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice .smartbrief.com/leadership, De- tional Support and Leader-Mem-
R. Lippitt, and R. K. White, “Pat- Hall, 1980), 116–17. cember 10, 2013. ber Exchange,” Journal of Applied
terns of Aggressive Behavior in 12. P. Hersey and K. H. Blanchard, 19. R. J. House, “Path-Goal Theory of Psychology (June 2002): 590–98;
Experimentally Created Social Management of Organizational Be- Leadership: Lessons, Legacy, and R. C. Liden, S. J. Wayne, and D.
Climates,” Journal of Social Psy- havior: Leading Human Resourc- a Reformulated Theory,” Leader- Stilwell, “A Longitudinal Study of
chology 10 (1939): 271–301; and es, 8th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: ship Quarterly, Fall 1996, 323–52; the Early Development of Leader-
R. Lippitt, “An Experimental Prentice Hall, 2001); and P. Hersey R. J. House and T. R. Mitchell, Member Exchanges,” Journal
Study of the Effect of Democratic and K. Blanchard, “So You Want “Path-Goal Theory of Leader- of Applied Psychology (August
and Authoritarian Group Atmo- to Know Your Leadership Style?” ship,” Journal of Contemporary 1993): 662–74; and R. C. Liden
spheres,” University of Iowa Stud- Training and Development Journal Business (Autumn 1974): 86; and and G. Graen, “Generalizability of
ies in Child Welfare 16 (1940): (February 1974): 1–15. R. J. House, “A Path-Goal Theory the Vertical Dyad Linkage Model
43–95. 13. See, for instance, E. G. Ralph, of Leader Effectiveness,” Adminis- of Leadership,” Academy of Man-
5. R. M. Stodgill and A. E. Coons, “Developing Managers’ Effective- trative Science Quarterly, Septem- agement Journal (September
eds., Leader Behavior: Its De- ness: A Model with Potential,” ber 1971, 321–38. 1980): 451–65.
scription and Measurement, Journal of Management Inquiry 20. A. Sagie and M. Koslowsky, “Or- 23. V. L. Goodwin, W. M. Bowler,
Research Monograph No. 88 (June 2004): 152–63; C. L. Graeff, ganizational Attitudes and Behav- and J. L. Whittington, “A Social
(Columbus: Ohio State Univer- “Evolution of Situational Leader- iors as a Function of Participation Network Perspective on LMX
sity, Bureau of Business Research, ship Theory: A Critical Review,” in Strategic and Tactical Change Relationships: Accounting for the
1951). See also S. Kerr, C. A. Leadership Quarterly 8, no. 2 Decisions: An Application of Path- Instrumental Value of Leader and
Schriesheim, C. J. Murphy, and (1997): 153–70; and C. F. Fernan- Goal Theory,” Journal of Organi- Follower Networks,” Journal of
R. M. Stodgill, “Toward a Con- dez and R. P. Vecchio, “Situational zational Behavior (January 1994): Management (August 2009): 954–
tingency Theory of Leadership Leadership Theory Revisited: A 37–47; and J. C. Wofford and L. 80; R. Vecchio and D. M. Brazil,
Based upon the Consideration and Test of an Across-Jobs Perspec- Z. Liska, “Path-Goal Theories of “Leadership and Sex-Similarity:
Initiating Structure Literature,” tive,” Leadership Quarterly 8, no. Leadership: A Meta-Analysis,” A Comparison in a Military Set-
Organizational Behavior and Hu- 1 (1997): 67–84. Journal of Management (Winter ting,” Personnel Psychology, vol.
man Performance (August 1974): 14. V. H. Vroom and P. W. Yetton, 1993): 857–76. 60 (2007): 303–35; M. Uhl-Bien,
62–82; and B. M. Fisher, “Consid- Leadership and Decision Making 21. L. Ma and Q. Qu, “Differentia- “Relationship Development as
eration and Initiating Structure and (Pittsburgh: University of Pitts- tion in Leader-Member Exchange: a Key Ingredient for Leadership
Their Relationships with Leader burgh Press, 1973). A Hierarchical Linear Modeling Development,” in S. E. Murphy
Effectiveness: A Meta Analysis,” 15. V. H. Vroom and A. G. Jago, The Approach,” Leadership Quar- and R. E. Riggio (eds.), Future of
in F. Hoy, ed., Proceedings of the New Leadership: Managing Par- terly, October 2010, 733–44; C. Leadership Development (Mah-
48th Annual Academy of Manage- ticipation in Organizations (Upper P. Schriesheim, S. L. Castro, X. wah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum,
ment Conference (Anaheim, CA, Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Zhou, and F. J. Yamarinno, “The 2003), 129–47; R. C. Liden, S.
1988), 201–05. 1988). See especially Chapter 8. Folly of Theorizing ‘A’ but Test- J. Wayne, and D. Stilwell, “A