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Modern Geomatics Technologies and Applications

estimate the level of PM2.5 in places where the amount of pollution is not directly measured. Finally, the results were compared
using the Mean Least Squares Error (MLSE). Comparison of MLSEs showed that for modeling air pollution in Tehran, the
Ordinary Kriging method has the best result, where the accuracy of the OK method was optimized with genetic algorithm and
particle swarm to optimize the clustering intervals of Kriging method in both regular and irregular intervals. Analysis of the
spatial distribution map of the pollutant concentrations shows that the concentration level of PM 2.5 pollutants has reached the
maximum in the southern and south western areas of Tehran [53].

Fig. 3. PM 2.5 pollutant concentrations map in Tehran [53]

4. Results and Recommendations
With the growing number of patients with cognitive impairment and AD, and its irreversible impacts as depression,
aggression, confusion, social isolation and loneliness, memory loss, severe physical trauma and even death, the development of
strategies that can prevent the progression of this type of disease and reduce the rate of its growth to higher stages is essential.
According to previous research, for people whom are at risk for cognitive impairment and AD due to aging, cardiovascular
disease, and most importantly genetic and hereditary factors, it is possible to identify modifiable risk factors and use prevention
strategies in a timely manner in order to delay or control the severity of the disease to some extent [19]. Prolonged exposure to
air pollution, noise and being away from green space are the most important modifiable environmental risk factors. Air pollution
as the most important risk factor for urban residents have been studied for Tehran in this research.
Cognitive impairment or AD occurs in three stages: the preclinical stage, the mild cognitive impairment stage (MCI), and
the severe dementia stage [3]. In the preclinical stage, people have measurable symptoms in the brain, such as changes in
cerebrospinal fluid, but no physical symptoms, such as memory loss. It is important to note that for people with biomarkers at
this stage it is possible to take action to prevent the disease from progressing to the MCI and dementia [3].
In [37], it has shown that APOE ɛ4 gene carriers can control the disease to some extent if they avoid prolonged exposure
to air pollutants. Annually, a significant number of people lives in Tehran lose their lives due to diseases related to air pollution.
According to the measurements of Municipality of Tehran AQCC, particulate matters with a diameter of less than 2.5 and 10
microns are the most significant air pollutants which are the most important environmental factors affecting cognitive impairment.
As recommended by experts, such as U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) scientists, staying away from areas with
high levels of these pollutants can assist to control the disease process, especially in patients or people at risk [54]. Thus, most
families prefer to control the disease process by migrating to clean cities or cleaner parts of cities where lower rates of these
pollutants have been reported. Numerous studies have been conducted to investigate the concentration of air pollutants. Spatial
interpolation techniques are effective in spatial prediction of air pollution on a regional, national and global scale [55].
In this article, the results of two studies that have identified high-risk areas using regional spatial analysis methods in GIS
were reviewed. In a general conclusion, due to the comprehensiveness of the research conducted by Faraji et al. in 2021, on
various pollutants, the results of their research were used to determine high air pollution risk areas. Ordinary kriging (OK) geo-
statistical method was selected as the best method with high accuracy, to determine the most air pollution vulnerable districts of
Tehran to advise not to accommodate patients who are not able to migrate from the city due to restrictions such as job and
educational restrictions.
The study of the overlap of all layers related to the concentration of each pollutant and Tehran districts maps which taken
from Google Map and then clustering the concentration of PM 10 and PM2.5 pollutants in each districts, shows that the areas
located in the south and southwest of Tehran are the most vulnerable areas with high levels of air pollutants. There are more than
7,000 industrial units in Tehran, 30% of which are located in the west and 54% in the south of the city. The presence of industries
on the one hand and the prevailing westerly and southwesterly winds that direct toxic gases from them into the city on the other
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