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The early Ming attitude towards Buddhism has been 8 MSL Taizong shilu, 46.2a–b (3/9/癸卯); Wade 2005b, http://epress.
characterised as ‘pragmatic’ or even as one of ‘suppression’, nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/514.
while at the same time ‘acknowledging the utilitarian value 9 On the establishment of a guanchang 官廠 (‘government deport’) at
57
of Buddhism for state ideology’. Scholars have also noted Melaka and its use in advancing Ming maritime domination in the
South China Sea region, see Wade 2014. Similar attempt to
the personal interest in Buddhism among some of the early transform a previously obscure location into a site of preeminence
Ming rulers and, at the same time, their restrictive policies, may have also taken place at the Swahili coast of Africa. For
especially with regard to the wealthy Buddhist monastic details, see Sen forthcoming.
institutions. The Yongle emperor’s acquisition of the Tooth 10 MSL Taizong shilu, 46.2a–b (3/9/癸卯); Wade 2005b, http://epress.
nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/514.
Relic and invitations to the Tibetan lamas, which took place 11 Mills 1970, 138.
during the first decade of his rule, clearly demonstrate this 12 Mills 1970, 146.
‘utilitarian value’ of Buddhism in early 15th-century China. 13 Ptak 1989.
14 Menon 1970; Malekandathil 2001, 35.
15 Sen 2011, 80, n. 96.
Concluding remarks 16 Wang 1968, 57.
Zheng He’s expeditions ceased little over six decades before 17 Sen 2011.
Vasco da Gama reached Calicut in 1498. Vasco da Gama’s 18 Yule 1875, II, 391.
arrival at the Malabar coast inaugurated the period of 19 MSL Taizong shilu 229.1b (18/9/乙亥); Wade 2005b, http://epress.
nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/2690.
European expansion in Asia, including the control of the 20 Sen 2006b.
commercial networks linking South Asia and China. In fact, 21 Bagchi 2012; Ray 1993.
the Portuguese quickly occupied Cochin and Melaka and 22 Church 2004.
were the first Europeans to assert their role in intra-Asian 23 Chakravarti 1999.
trade. For Robert Finlay and Geoff Wade, there are 24 MSL Yingzong shilu, 47.6b (3/10/丁卯); Wade 2005b, http://epress.
similarities between the methods used by Zheng He and the nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/733 [Chen Deqing] and MSL Yingzong shilu,
54.7b (4/4/甲辰); Wade 2005b, http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/
early Portuguese in exercising control over the key nodes of entry/949 [Song Yun].
Indian Ocean commerce. Parallels can also be found in 25 Sen 2011, 65–6.
58
their desire to procure pepper from the Malabar coast and 26 Bandaranayake et al. 1990, 217–19; Nagel 2001; Liu Yingsheng
2008.
the interest in the Tooth Relic from Sri Lanka, which seems 27 Fei Hsin 1996, 64.
to have miraculously reappeared during the time of 28 Sen 2014. On Yebanaina, see Karashima 1978.
59
Portuguese colonisation. The European colonial powers, 29 MSL Taizong shilu, 24.9a-b (1/10/甲戌); Wade 2005b, http://epress.
like the Chinese court, realised that a physical presence in nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/13.
South Asia was necessary to assert maritime superiority in 30 T’ien Ju-Kang 1981, 187.
the Indian Ocean. 31 Mills 1970, 143.
32 Mills 1970, 135.
At this very end of the pre-colonial phase of China’s 33 Fei Hsin 1996, 67.
interactions with South Asia, several centuries of exchanges 34 Mills 1970, 135, n. 3.
coalesced during the Zheng He expeditions. The Buddhist 35 Mills 1970, 136.
connections that defined the first millennium were again 36 Fei Hsin 1996, 69.
37 Mills 1970, 140–3.
evident because of the Yongle emperor’s interest in monks, 38 Fei Hsin 1996, 63.
relics and the need to legitimise his reign through the use of 39 Mills 1970, 165.
Buddhism. It also marked the culmination of a period of 40 Roşu 1982.
intense maritime commercial relations and diplomatic 41 Sen 2005.
42 Cortesão 1944, vol. 2, 229 ff.
contacts between the two regions. The circulation of people, 43 Berger 2001; Sperling 1983, 74–135.
goods and knowledge were also vigorous and as multifaceted 44 McKeown 2010.
as in the past, which is revealed from the presents of giraffes 45 Sperling 1982; Sperling 1983, 146–7.
and horses to the Ming court, the detailed records of Ma 46 McKeown 2010, 137–54.
Huan and Fei Xin and the Bengali-Chinese lexicon. The 47 Ji et al. 1985, 880, n. 5. The passage, however, does not appear in
the existing versions of the Ming Northern Edition.
first half of the 15th century was, therefore, on the one hand 48 Li Rongxi 1996, 353–5; original text in Xuanzang and Bianji, T.
the climax of the past interactions between China and South 2087: 938c–939a.
Asia, and on the other hand a watershed, transiting within a 49 Su Bai 1996, 213–14.
century to a new phase that would be defined by European 50 Discussion of some of the Sri Lankan sources likely pertaining to
the armed conflict between Zheng He and the local ‘ruler’ can be
colonial domination. found in Hettiaratchi 2003 and Sen 2014.
51 He Xiaorong 2000, 104; Zhang Huiyi 2007.
Notes 52 He Xiaorong 2000, 104–5; He Yunao 2007; Gong and Pan 2008.
1 Hartwell 1989; Sen 2003, 151–5. 53 Sperling 1982.
2 Lo 2012. 54 Tsai Shih-shan 2001, 44.
3 Sen 2006a. 55 Sen 2014.
4 Li Kangying 2010. 56 Chi 2005, 769.
5 Wang 1968. 57 Brook 1994; Wu Jiang 2008, 23.
6 Levathes 1994; Wade 2005a; Dreyer 2007. 58 Finlay 1992; Wade 2005a.
7 MSL Taizong shilu 24.5b (1/10/壬申); Wade 2005b, http://epress.nus. 59 Strong 2004, 193.
edu.sg/msl/entry/7.

36 | Ming China: Courts and Contacts 1400–1450