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invading a neighbour, the Ming ruler was performing his A deeper examination of the build-up for war, however,
function as the legitimate ruler of the world in punishing the suggests that it might not have been as impromptu as the
wicked. Yongle was careful to note that the Ming regarded emperor suggested. First of all, as noted above, the Ming had
all who violated the rules of investiture as criminals. As the been engaging in a policy of southward expansion and
emperor proclaimed: territorial consolidation since the foundation of the dynasty.
They were actively involved in relations with the polities of
The bandit minister Li Jili 黎季犛 (Hồ Quý Ly) and his son mainland Southeast Asia and were just embarking upon the
Cang 蒼 of Annan 安南 [Annam] repeatedly killed rulers of the famed naval expeditions to the so-called Western Oceans
country and slaughtered their families. They grabbed power in
the country and duplicitously usurped the throne, levied harsh (Xiyang 西洋). Extensive preparations for war were made,
and extortionate taxes and legally raped the people. There was including accumulating lots of clothing and special medicine
much complaint in the region but no one to seek recourse from. for the rough Vietnamese climate. In addition to the huge
Moreover, they have let their soldiers loot and plunder and land forces assembled in Yunnan and Guangxi, some units
invade neighbours’ fiefs [i.e. lands of other tributary states]. were sent ahead by sea to occupy towns and prepare for
Despite repeated imperial instructions they have deceitfully advancing Ming armies. Moreover, there were hawkish
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disobeyed orders and wallowed in their evil. Now I have elements within the court who advocated the annexation of
ordered generals to lead the army to save the people and punish Annam, and at least one geographic work published in 1394
[the Hồ] for their crimes. The army will be mobilised on the had described Annam as part of the empire. All of these
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16th day of this month. I have specially proclaimed this so the
spirits will assist them. 29 suggest that the Ming were anticipating a long stay and had
possibly been planning for the annexation of Vietnam for
Three days later Yongle appointed Zhu Neng the some time, with the Yongle emperor perhaps seeing it as just
Generalissimo in Charge of Pacifying the Yi, with Mu another step in his consolidation of power and establishment
Sheng 沐晟 (1368–1439) as Vice Commander of the Left and of legitimacy. In any case such a move, coupled with his
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Zhang Fu 張輔 (1375–1449) Vice Commander of the Right. unprecedented use of naval power, accords well with the
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Though contemporary sources claim the Ming force emperor’s persistent desire to manifest awe at his rule. 38
included as many as 800,000 troops, most modern estimates It was a gorgeous day when the Yongle emperor
place the figure at slightly more than a quarter of that. In personally oversaw the troops departing the capital, and he
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any case, it was a huge force designed to overawe the confidently predicted victory. But the large army did not
Vietnamese with both numbers and firepower, as the Ming proceed particularly fast, and its commander Zhu Neng died
troops were equipped with the latest in military technology. in the tenth month of 1406 before even reaching the border.
Indeed, the reliance upon superior technological prowess He was replaced by Zhang Fu, who would prove to be by far
was a hallmark of the Ming military throughout the dynasty the most adept Ming commander in the ensuing decade
and a key component of Ming grand strategy. It was until his final recall to China in 1416, well before the
particularly noteworthy in conflicts where the Ming could ultimate Ming defeat. The larger Ming invasion force was
smash less well-equipped foes in stationary positions such as alert for ambushes and much better prepared, with extensive
the ones they encountered in the wars of colonial expansion supplies and stores of medicine, in addition to large numbers
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in China’s southwest lands of Yunnan and Guangxi, which of firearms. It is noted that among the Ming commanders
were only under nominal control at this early stage in the initially sent to chastise the Vietnamese in 1406 were the
dynasty. In fact, just prior to the punitive campaign in Shenji jiangjun 神機將軍 (‘heavenly firearms commanders’)
Vietnam, the Ming had been aggressively establishing Cheng Kuan 程寬 (active c. 1400) and Zhu Gui 朱貴
pacification commissions in the southwest as footholds for (c. 1370–1420). This force consisted of some 75,000 troops,
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Chinese settlement and as a means for control and influence under 20 commanders mustered from all over the Ming
in more far-flung Tai and Burmese polities (see discussion by empire. Sun Laichen suggests that in this era about 10 per
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Geoffrey Wade in Chapter 2 of this volume). 32 cent of Ming troops were equipped with firearms (Pls
In their announced role as liberators of the people Yongle 4.1–4.5), though my research indicates that they strove to
enjoined the troops to refrain from despoiling tombs, seizing reach higher ratios when possible. Clearly this was
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goods, raping women or engaging in other evil acts. He designed to overawe their presumably numerically and
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also said they should not violate local laws and should not technologically inferior enemy.
‘recklessly advance in greedy pursuit of profit’, a command The use of firearms is noteworthy in that it appears to
which seems to have been directed at military commanders have been standard operating procedure for the Ming to use
seeking glory and reward for their achievements. In guns as force multipliers and against technologically inferior
particular he noted that the military expeditions of the Song foes in particular, where it was believed they could be
and Yuan dynasties into Yunnan had failed because the overawed into ready submission. Hence we see their use in
commanders were greedy and had contended with one the initial conquest of Yunnan in the 1380s and throughout
another. Therefore the emperor explicitly instructed his the Ming period in campaigns of expansion in the
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commanders to cooperate and not become jealous of one southwest. Zhang Wen has recently argued that firearms
another’s achievements. Moreover, at least according to the were integral in the incorporation of formerly aboriginal
Chinese sources, the initial goals seem to have been modest. lands into the regular administrative structure of the
Once the criminals were brought to justice, the Trần were to Chinese empire in the late imperial era, suggesting that the
be restored to their throne. Publicly at least Yongle evinced relationship between superior military technologies and
no desire for the annexation of Annam. bureaucratic administrative advances in China was in fact

Causes and Consequences of the Ming Intervention in Vietnam in the Early Fifteenth Century | 39