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falling prey to Vietnamese imperialism based in part on the 22 Chao Zhongchen 1995, 342.
Chinese model. Additionally, the Ming were not above 23 MSJSBM 1997, 346.
importing superior military technologies from their 24 MSJSBM 1997, 346. For a slightly different version of the exchange
between Yongle and Zhu Neng, see MSL Taizong shilu 53.4b–5a
neighbours, tributaries and even outsiders in the interest of (4/4/癸未) as cited in Wade 2005b, http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/
retaining their position at the apex of the tributary entry/876. Also Chao Zhongchen 1995, 343–4.
hierarchy. Thus, far from being a passive, non-competitive 25 The crimes as listed in the Ming shilu are enumerated and discussed
imperial power as some have suggested, the Ming empire in Zheng Yongchang 1997, 50–2. Also see Zhang Xiumin 1992,
193–5.
was in fact a dynamic, realistic hegemonic power much in 26 See Chao Zhongchen 1995, 343–4.
line with its early modern contemporaries and even ahead of 27 Concerning the emperor’s right to exercise ‘divine chastisement’,
them in certain respects. see Lo Jung-pang 1970, 161–2.
28 Wang Gungwu 1998, 305.
29 Chao Zhongchen 1995, 344. The original in MSL Taizong shilu 56.1a
Notes (4/7/戊子). For a slightly variant translation, see Wade 2005b,
1 Wade 2005b, http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/840, original text http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/901.
in MSL Taizu shilu 68.4a–b (4/9/辛未). 30 All these commanders had served Yongle loyally in his war of
2 Tsai, Shih-shan Henry 2001; DMB, 355–65; Chao Zhongchen usurpation and in campaigns in the southwest. Zhang Fu’s
1995. daughter was one of the emperor’s concubines. See DMB, 64–6,
3 Ming grand strategy has been the subject of much recent research Zhang Xiumin 1992, 191–210, and MS, 4219–24 for biographies of
that attempts to put it within the broader context of Chinese Zhang Fu.
history and strategic culture, e.g. Johnston 1995; Wang Yuan-kang 31 MS, 4220, and MSJSBM 1997, 346. For the modern estimates see
2011, 101–80. I examine these and other works and take up the Wade 2005a, 43, and Whitmore 1985, 89.
subject of Ming grand strategy in much greater detail in Swope 32 Wade 2008, 584–7.
forthcoming. 33 Chao Zhongchen 1995, 345.
4 Some scholars suggest that the Ming deliberately refrained from 34 See Zhang Xiumin 1992, 192, and Chao Zhongchen 1995, 345.
using force most of the time, but still maintained a military 35 Chao Zhongchen 1995, 346.
presence by more subtle means such as stationing Ming officials in 36 Lo Jung-pang 1970, 164.
far-flung ports; Ptak 1998, 24–6. 37 The emperor had previously claimed that ‘since ancient times
5 On Ming military interventions in Southeast Asia in general in this Annam had comprised administrative divisions of China’. See
era, including during the expeditions led by the eunuch Zheng He, Wade 2008, 588, n. 43.
see Wade 2008, and also Chapter 2 by the same author in this 38 A number of scholars have recently drawn attention to the military
volume. and grand strategic implications of the naval expeditions, but it
6 The classic English language overview of the tributary system should be noted that Lo Jung-pang pointed this out nearly 50 years
remains Fairbank 1968. For relations with Southeast Asia in ago. See Lo Jung-pang 1970, 174–5.
particular see Wang Gungwu 1968 and 1998. For a recent 39 On Ming strategy and planning, see Chao Zhongchen 1995,
examination of the significance of the tributary system in 345–6. For a list of major command assignments, see HMTJ, 426.
maintaining Ming hegemony in Asia see Kang 2010. 40 MSJSBM 1997, 346–7.
7 I generally refer to the polity known as Đại Việt, which more 41 For a detailed discussion of Ming troop dispatches and a table with
properly refers to the more northern part of today’s nation of specific dates, see Zheng Yongchang 1997, 36–50.
Vietnam, as Vietnam throughout the present piece. For a recent 42 Sun Laichen 2003, 498. Some sources give the outrageously high
overview of Ming–Vietnamese relations, see Zheng Yongchang figure of 800,000 Ming troops being mobilised for the campaign in
1997. Annam, e.g. Chao Zhongchen 1995, 339. This biography offers an
8 Finlay 1991, 6. overview of the Ming occupation of Vietnam on 339–51. Also see
9 For a detailed analysis of the background context and the reasons Zheng Yongchang 1997, 46 concerning the figure of 800,000. On
Wanli decided to intervene in Korea, see Swope 2013 (also Swope firearms ratios among Ming troops, see Swope 2009, especially ch. 2.
2009, which discusses that war in its entirety). On Yongle’s grand 43 Li Bin 1995, 149. On their use in the late Ming during the
strategic concerns see Ptak 1998, 28. suppression of the rebellion of the Miao chieftain, Yang Yinglong
10 For a detailed discussion of the Ming dispute with the Hồ see 楊應龍 (d. 1600), see Swope 2011.
Zheng Yongchang 1997, 26–36. 44 Zhang Wen 2008.
11 Hồ Quý Ly was able to take advantage of unrest in Annam caused 45 MS, 4220, and Zhang Xiumin 1992, 196.
by repeated invasions from Champa, the kingdom based in what is 46 HMTJ, 429–30, and MSJSBM 1997, 348.
now southern Vietnam. DMB, 797; Tsai, Shih-shan Henry 2001, 47 MS, 4220.
178–9, and Whitmore 1985, 73–4. 48 Zhang Xiumin 1992, 199.
12 Chao Zhongchen 1995, 340. For the original references see MSL 49 MSJSBM 1997, 349.
Taizong shilu 19.3a–b (1/4/辛酉) and Taizong shilu 25.11b (1/11/丁卯), 50 MS, 4221.
translated in Wade 2005b, http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/24 51 See Zhang Xiumin 1992, 199.
and http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/34. 52 All told the Ming claimed to have captured over 2.8 million
13 GQ: Tan Qian 1978, 968. For details on the process of usurpation, Vietnamese (man ren 蠻人) but this figure must be inflated. See
see Whitmore 1985, 53–63, and MSJSBM 1997, 343–6. Also see Zhang Xiumin 1992, 198.
MS, 8324. 53 Zhang Xiumin 1992, 46.
14 Chao Zhongchen 1995, 341. 54 Zhang Xiumin 1992, 198–201.
15 MSL Taizong shilu 37.3a–b (2/12/壬辰); Wade 2005b, http://epress. 55 See Tsai, Shih-shan Henry 1996, 14–17.
nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/346. 56 MS, 2264.
16 MSL Taizong shilu 38.3b–4a (3/1/甲寅); Wade 2005b, http://epress. 57 Zhang Xiumin 1992, 119–23; Clunas and Harrison-Hall 2014, 50.
nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/527. 58 Whitmore 1985, 41.
17 Chao Zhongchen 1995, 341, and DMB, 799. 59 On this technology, see Li Bin 1995, 150–2; and Sun Laichen 2006,
18 Chao Zhongchen 1995, 341. 89–93.
19 MSJSBM 1997, 345. 60 On the adoption of foreign technologies, see MS, 2264–5.
20 MSJSBM 1997, 345–6. Also see HMTJ, 423. 61 Sun Laichen 2000.
21 MSL Taizong shilu 52.6a–7a (4/3/丙午); Wade 2005b, http://epress. 62 Zhang Xiumin 1992, 199.
nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/875. The Chens are the Trần and Tianping 63 Lo Jung-pang 1970, 174.
天平 is the Chinese rendering of the claimant’s name, Thiên Bình. 64 Chao Zhongchen 1995, 347.

44 | Ming China: Courts and Contacts 1400–1450