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Plate 4.4 Vietnamese handguns in Mr Guo’s shop at the Plate 4.5 The three firearms in Mark Rapoport’s possession at the 54
antique market in Nanning, Guangxi Traditions

sources highlight their importance. In fact, according to the generically means ‘gun’ and appears to be used in that sense
18th-century Ming shi, the Yongle emperor decided to here, most likely to refer to forerunners of the arquebus.)
establish the Firearms Division (shenji ying 神機營) in the Thus, when the Ming eagerly adopted superior Western
capital in the early 15th century after the Ming captured military technologies such as the ‘red barbarian cannon’
new firearms and firearms experts during their invasion and and the arquebus from the Portuguese at the beginning of
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occupation of Vietnam. As we have seen, such later claims the 16th century, they were in fact operating within a
are false, since the Ming already had a very advanced well-established framework consistent with their grand
armaments industry prior to the invasion. Nonetheless this strategic goals. 60
claim (and the fact that Vietnamese artisans were deported) Additionally, while the Mongols have long been
reveals that there was in fact a good deal of technological recognised as major transmitters of military technology
exchange taking place in Asia in the wake of the collapse of throughout the globe, until recently scholars have paid far
the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) in China. It also less attention to the important role played by the succeeding
attests to the Ming desire to assert themselves firmly at the Ming dynasty in continuing these efforts, albeit not always
apex of the reconstituted tributary system. As tributary intentionally. Indeed, some scholars have identified the
overlords and colonial masters it was their prerogative to Ming as the world’s first ‘gunpowder empire’ and have
extract resources, human and otherwise, from their subject suggested that the dissemination of Ming firearms
states. In bringing these artisans to China, the Yongle technology to Southeast Asia was critical in regional power
61
emperor was forcibly underscoring this fact and exercising struggles and state formation. Moreover, even as they
his rights as the Son of Heaven. In fact, in addition to sought to protect their gunpowder technology from falling
working in the Firearms Division, there is evidence that into the hands of potential foes, the Ming recognised how
Vietnamese artisans assisted in the construction of the this technology could contribute to regional stability and
Yongle emperor’s new capital in Beijing. 57 hence shared it with their allies, most notably Joseon Korea.
Furthermore, as will be demonstrated below, such Likewise, they sought to keep it secret from their enemies,
exchanges were not that unusual, as the Ming were always including the Vietnamese. As will be seen below, the Ming
looking to gain a military edge over their rivals as part of inability to maintain this key technological edge would be
their grand strategy. Though the Ming generally led the an important, but not the only, factor in their eventual defeat
way in technological innovation and dissemination of new in Vietnam.
technologies, Ming emperors and military commanders But initially Ming technological prowess carried the day
were astute enough to recognise and adopt superior and it seemed that Vietnam would be pacified even more
technologies and tactics, no matter what their origins. This easily than Yunnan. When Zhang Fu returned to the capital
can be seen in the Ming request for war elephants from a year later in 1408, the Yongle emperor personally hosted a
Vietnam to aid in its pacification of recalcitrant tribal banquet in his honour. In particular the emperor praised
groups in the southwest. It is also evidenced by the Ming him for overawing the enemy but Zhang deflected the
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adoption of so-called ‘wooden wad’ technology from compliment, crediting the emperor’s sage planning and the
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Vietnam to increase the range of their ‘fire lances’ (shen qiang backing of the state for his success. In the assessment of Lo
神槍), upon encountering this technology during their Jung-pang the Ming victory achieved the Yongle emperor’s
occupation of Vietnam in the early 15th century. (The term two grand strategic aims of frontier security and the
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shen qiang is ambiguous. In pre-Ming times it could denote a restoration of China’s ascendant position on the
primitive flamethrower of sorts, but in the Ming it just international scene, though it could also be argued that it

Causes and Consequences of the Ming Intervention in Vietnam in the Early Fifteenth Century | 41