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4.5 Misuses and Challenges 57

VetBooks.ir made a huge mess. The dog happily rushes behind the ears (for animals where contact is
permissible), and the opportunity to play a
up to the owner when he arrives home. But
having seen the mess made by the dog, the
animal. But it is likely that each of these items
owner yells ‘bad dog’ and perhaps in his frus- game may all serve as reinforcers for one
tration even smacks the dog on the nose. The would rank differently in terms of how the
smack and yelling ‘bad dog’ are certainly animal perceives their value. The morsel of
aversive and could be perceived as positive grain might be of low value compared to the
punishers; but the timing was very poor. The apple. The scratch behind the ear might be of
dog made the mess in the house several hours low value compared to the toy. Every animal
earlier. By applying the punishment when he is different and even with the same animal
did, the owner actually punished the behav- the value of the reinforcer might change
iour of happily greeting the owner at the across environmental situations. It is impor-
door, not the behaviour of making the house tant to evaluate which reinforcers are going
a mess. This misuse of punishment creates to be the most effective in any given situa-
confusion for the dog and does not teach the tion. A morsel of grain may be all that is
dog what is desired (and in extreme cases can needed to train a behaviour with an animal
even teach the dog to be fearful of the owner). that is alone in a habitat with no distractions.
Poorly timed reinforcement: an animal has But that same morsel of grain might prove
been taught to hold still and present its feet inconsequential in a training session that
for nail trims. Once the nail has been cut, the includes several other animals and lots of dis-
animal makes a cooing noise and prances tractions. It is important to take the time to
around after which it is given a treat for understand the value of each reinforcer being
allowing the nails to be trimmed. Even used whilst training.
though the treat followed the nail trim, so did Punishment intensity: the value of a pun-
the noises and prancing. The reinforcement isher is often measured by its intensity. An
could result in an animal that becomes more animal that is afraid of people might find the
vocal and more boisterous rather than calm mere presence of a person in their space as
behaviour that allows nails to be trimmed. sufficiently aversive to cause that animal to
Good timing requires good observation move or change its behaviour. Whilst for
and mechanical skills that can only be another animal the presence of a person may
acquired through practice. In my opinion to not be aversive at all, yet any type of touch,
assist with timing, it is helpful to use some no matter how gentle, might be unpleasant
type of signal to indicate to the animal when and thus aversive to that animal. Meanwhile,
a behaviour is performed correctly; this an animal that enjoys human contact, might
marker may be in the form of a whistle, a find neither of these situations aversive. To
clicker, or a word such as ‘good’. use an aversive (so that a punisher or nega-
tive reinforcer could be applied) with an ani-
mal already comfortable around people
4.5.2 Value and Intensity
might require that a ‘scary’ object also be
Consequences can be described in terms of present (i.e. an object which is associated
intensity and perceived value to an animal, with previous situations that were aversive)
both of which will vary. In my experience, or that the trainer hit the animal with a cer-
understanding intensity and value has proven tain amount of force. Because of the nature of
to be one of the hardest things for inexperi- aversive stimuli, i.e. they need to be unpleas-
enced trainers to understand and apply. ant, it is possible to inadvertently escalate the
Reinforcement value: everything we offer intensity of aversive stimuli used. It can be
to an animal may be perceived of value, difficult to recognise if the intensity is too
though this value may vary. A morsel of low to have any impact or too intense and
grain, a carrot, an apple, a toy, a scratch cause unwanted side effects. There are many