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FACE TO FACE | EASTERN HORIZON 23

is irrational, in misconceiving its which he gives a complex training conventionally (saṃvṛtisat), but not
object, the enemy who harms us. ritual to develop confidence and ultimately (paramārthasat).
Anger arises because we falsely faith in the bodhisattva path. Faith
ascribe a robust agency to the (sraddha) for Śāntideva is a mental Śāntideva also gives a similar
enemy, conceiving of him or her as state of firm conviction in the response to an opponent when
able to freely choose to bring about efficacy of Buddhist training and the dealing with this question. But he
harm. Actually, Śāntideva suggests qualities of the Buddha. It is in no also says that the bodhisattva is
the causal story is much more way in tension with a commitment able to engage with the object of
completed. Individuals harm us to reasoning; in fact Śāntideva’s compassion as a result of his use of
because they are impelled by their arguments are meant to achieve a delusion (moha). The idea seems to
own disturbed mental states, but reasoned conviction in Buddhist be that we continue to provisionally
also because of innumerable causal truths. engage with persons through a
conditions, each of which is itself skilful use of conceptuality. Persons
caused by an indefinite number Śāntideva taught emptiness as are really causally interacting
of additional factors. In the past, the idea that all things are empty collections of mental and physical
we ourselves have made choices of inherent existence. If that is so, events, but the bodhisattva
as well which cause suffering, who is the bodhisattva directing provisionally conceives of these
and therefore it is irrational for his kindness and compassion to? events as constituting a human
us to hold a double standard and being. The strategy here is similar
suggest the enemy who harms us This is a puzzle that Śāntideva to the approach we take when
must be punished while we are explicitly addresses in the ninth we conceive of a forest, which is
not. Through arguments like these chapter of the text. He has an constituted by a collection of trees,
Śāntideva insists that compassion, opponent who argues that if as a single object. In reality there
rather than anger, is the rational all beings are empty (śūnya) of are a plurality of interconnected
attitude to hold towards those who intrinsic existence (svabhāva), then trees, not a single object. But
try to harm us, as well as towards bodhisattvas and the beings they through applying the concept
ourselves and all others who are save are both empty. Therefore, “forest” we can conceptually relate
currently being harmed. the opponent thinks, they do to the collection as if it had a unity
not exist. The founder of the it did not possess; I can suggest
Is it correct to argue that Madhyamaka school, Nāgārjuna, you and I take a walk in the forest,
Śāntideva used reasoning rather considered a similar objection or a city can pass legislation to
than faith to cultivate a moral in his Root Verses on the Middle protect forests, and so on. I think
character? Way (Mūlamadhyamakakārikā), Śāntideva is suggesting a similar
in which an opponent claims that attitude towards persons here;
Śāntideva uses a variety of tools accepting universal emptiness they are not ultimately existent,
to develop virtuous character. As entails the four noble truths are but they are a kind of useful fiction,
a philosopher, I am particularly empty, as is the path, the goal etc. the employment of which enables
interested in his use of reason; Nāgārjuna’s response is to argue engaging more deeply with the
throughout the Guide he offers that to say a thing is empty does not world. As a result of this strategy,
arguments meant to help us mean it does not exist; rather, it is the bodhisattva is able to feel
recognize the irrationality of the to explain how it exists, as lacking compassion towards beings, in a
distorted attitudes constituted by intrinsic existence (svabhāva), and way he or she would not towards
the pathological emotions. He also therefore existing in dependence collections of impermanent events.
uses ritual as a training technique, on causes and conditions and EH
however, particularly in the second conceptual labelling by the mind. It
and third chapters of the Guide, in exists, to use Buddhist vocabulary,