Page 422 - Deep Learning

Notes to Pages 37–41 405

31. The Ego is the structural component that is responsible for a person’s adaptation
to reality and for compromising between drives and desires, on the one hand,
and the constraints of reality, on the other. It was first highlighted in Sigmund
Freud’s The Ego and the Id (Freud, 1923). The concept was later developed further
by, among others, A. Freud (1946) and Hartmann (1958). See Marcus (1999) and
Wallerstein (2002) for reviews of psychoanalytic ego psychology.
32. For a biography of Alan Turing, see Hodges (1983). For the story of how Turing
and others broke the German military code called Enigma, see Kahn (1998) and
Sebag-Montefiori (2000).
33. Newell, Shaw and Simon (1958).
34. See Newell (1972, 1973). For the subsequent development of production system
models of human cognition, see Neches, Langley and Klahr (1987).
35. Anderson (1983, 1993, 2005, 2007) and Anderson and Lebiere (1998). See Cooper
(2006) for a philosophical analysis of the research program behind the ACT-R
theory, and Ohlsson (1998) for a reflection on how the cognitive architecture
program relates to the traditional psychometric approach to intelligence.
36. Weinberg (1992).
37. The arguments against the Turing-Newell vision have been developed by advo-
cates of the embodied cognition approach; see, e.g., M. L. Anderson (2003). But
this supposed alternative is an approach to Artificial Intelligence, not cognitive
psychology. There are few if any examples of novel and convincing examples of
embodied explanations of standard and well-documented phenomena in human
cognition.
38. Pierce and Writer (2005) tell of the discovery of the mechanism of contagion
in yellow fever. The corresponding story of cholera is very different (Johnson,
2006), but both are nevertheless stories about breakdowns into component pro-
cesses. Rosenberg (1992, Chap. 14) contrasts this contamination schema with two
other explanatory schemas that focus on configurations of environmental factors
and individual predispositions, respectively.
39. Although the electrolysis of water is described in introductory chemistry texts
(Brady & Holum, 1988, pp. 696–700; Ebbing & Wrighton, 1990, pp. 774–780), it
is still the subject of research; see Wendt and Imarisio (2005).
40. The concept of allopatric (geographic) speciation was first formulated systemat-
ically by Ernest Mayr in Systematics and the Origin of Species from the Viewpoint
of a Zoologist in 1942 (Mayr, 1942/1999). According to this speciation mecha-
nism, the first step is that a population splits into two subpopulations which
become geographically and hence reproductively isolated from one another.
Each adapts to its geographical area via natural selection. Over time, the accu-
mulated adaptations prevent interbreeding with the other subpopulation, should
the two subpopulations happen to be reunited. The change mechanism is adap-
tation, i.e., the accumulation of beneficial mutations, through natural selection,
and the triggering conditions are reproductive isolation due to some geographic
barrier. However, there are modes of speciation that achieve reproductive iso-
lation in other ways than via a geographic barrier; see Bush (1975) for a discus-
sion of parapatric and sympatric speciation. In contrast, the change mechanism