Page 16 - Essentials of Human Communication

Impression Formation 37

chapter, memory isn’t reproductive; you don’t simply reproduce what you’ve heard or seen.
Rather, you reconstruct what you’ve heard or seen into a whole that is meaningful to you. It’s
this reconstruction that you store in memory. When you want to retrieve this information,
you may recall it with a variety of inaccuracies.
objective Self-Check Welcome xv
Can you define perception and explain its five stages (stimulation, organization, interpretation-
evaluation, memory, and recall)? Can you apply the skills for increasing your own perceptual accuracy?
● The role of culture in small group membership and leadership; cultural differences between
individual and collective orientations and high- and low-power distances (Chapter 10).
Impression formation
● The role of culture in speech topics; guidelines to help public speakers avoid taboo topics when
With an understanding of the self and how perception works, we can look at the ways
addressing culturally varied audiences; cultural factors in audience analysis (Chapter 11).
they are intimately connected: first in impression formation and then in impression
management—academic terms for what you do every day.
● cultural considerations in the language of public speaking, culture shock, and cultural
Impression formation (sometimes referred to as person perception) refers to the pro-
sensitivity in speech criticism (Chapter 12).
cesses you go through in forming an impression of another person. Here, we look at a variety
of impression management processes, each of which has pitfalls and potential dangers; and
● cultural sensitivity in selecting supporting materials (Chapter 13).
then we focus on some of the ways we can increase accuracy in impression formation.
● Adapting to the culture (collectivist, high-power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and
ImpreSSIon formAtIon proCeSSeS
long-term orientation) of the audience; the impact of cultural differences on credibility
How you perceive another person and ultimately come to some kind of evaluation or interpre- Watch the Video “Tonya”
tation of him or her is influenced by a variety of processes. Here, we consider some of the at MyCommunicationLab
appeals (Chapter 14).
more significant: the self-fulfilling prophecy, primacy—recency, stereotyping, and attribution.
In addition, many of the interior photos ViewPoints and the Communication Choice
Self-fulfilling prophecy A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that comes true be-
cause you act on it as if it were true. Self-fulfilling prophecies occur in such widely different
Points focus on culture.
situations as parent–child relationships, educational settings, and
business (Merton, 1957; Rosenthal, 2002; Madon, Guyll, & Spoth, 84 Chapter 4 Verbal Messages
2004; Tierney & Farmer, 2004). There are four basic steps in the self-
fulfilling prophecy:
1. You make a prediction or formulate a belief about a person or a Communication
situation. For example, you predict that Pat is friendly in social Choice point
situations. Caribbean and in South America whose origins are African, Native American, French, or Por-
2. You act toward that person or situation as if such a prediction or Misusing Cultural tuguese. Chicana (female) and Chicano (male) refer to persons with roots in Mexico, although
belief were true. For example, you act as if Pat were a friendly per- Identifiers it often connotes a nationalist attitude (Jandt, 2010). Mexican American is generally preferred.
son.
During a conversation a Inuk (plural, Inuit), also spelled with two n’s (Innuk and Innuit), is preferred to
3. Because you act as if the belief were true, it becomes true. For ex- group of classmates all use negative self- Eskimo (a term the U.S. Census Bureau uses), a term applied to the indigenous peo-
ample, because of the way you act, Pat becomes comfortable and reference terms. Trying to be one of the
friendly. ples of Alaska and Canada by Europeans and that literally means “raw meat eaters.”
4. You observe your effect on the person or the resulting situation, group, you too use these terms—but almost The word Indian technically refers only to someone from India, not to members
and what you see strengthens your beliefs. For example, you ob - immediately realize that the linguistic privi- of other Asian countries or to the indigenous peoples of North America. American
141
The Stages of Interpersonal Relationships
serve Pat’s friendliness, and this reinforces your belief that Pat is, lege allowing insiders to use self-derogatory Indian or Native American is preferred, even though many Native Americans do re-
in fact, friendly. VIewpoIntS names does not apply to outsiders (i.e., you).
intimaCy Communication fer to themselves as Indians and Indian people. The word squaw, used to refer to a
Your public messages
The self-fulfilling prophecy also can be seen when you make pre- The contact and involvement stages make up relationship development—a move- Choice point
You don’t want anyone to think that you
dictions about yourself and fulfill them. For example, suppose you en- ment toward intimacy. At the intimacy stage you commit yourself still further to the Relationship Résumé Native American woman and still used in some U.S. place names and textbooks, is
Will knowing that some undergraduate and graduate admissions
normally talk this way. How can you try to
offices and potential employers may examine your postings on
ter a group situation convinced that the other members will dislike other person and establish a relationship in which this individual becomes your best Although you’ve been mostly clearly a term to be avoided; its usage is almost always negative and insulting.
reverse their impressions or at least minimize
sites such as MySpace or Facebook influence what you write? For
you. Almost invariably you’ll be proved right; to you, the other mem- or closest friend, lover, or companion. Because intimacy is essentially an emotional/ honest in your two-month Internet relation- In Canada indigenous people are called first people or first nations. The term
their negativity?
example, do you avoid posting opinions that might be viewed
bers will appear to dislike you. What you may be doing is acting in a communication connection, it can occur in face-to-face and in online relationships ship, you have padded your relationship native American (with a lowercase n) is most often used to refer to persons born in
résumé—lopped off a few years and
negatively by schools or employers? Do you deliberately post
way that encourages the group to respond to you negatively. In this equally. You also come to share each other’s social networks, a practice followed by pounds and made your temporary job seem
items that you want schools or employers to find?
way, you fulfill your prophecies about yourself. members of widely different cultures (Gao & Gudykunst, 1995). This is seen most like the executive fast track. You now want the United States. Although technically the term could refer to anyone born in North
clearly on social network sites where the site itself identifies people with whom you to come clean. What might you do in preface
might want to become “friends” based on mutual friends or interests. Both the quan- or South America, people outside the United States generally prefer more specific
tity and the quality of your interpersonal exchanges increase (Emmers-Sommer, channel would you use?
2004), and of course you also talk more and in greater detail about the relationship
Effective human communication is as important in the workplace as it is in any part of
to this revelation? What would you say? What designations such as Argentinean, Cuban, or Canadian. The term native describes an indige-
(Knobloch, Haunani, & Theiss, 2006). Not surprisingly, your relationship satisfac-
nous inhabitant; it is not used to indicate “someone having a less developed culture.”
your life. Workplace material includes frequent examples, illustrations, and photo View-
tion also increases with the move to this stage (Siavelis & Lamke, 1992). One research study
Muslim (rather than the older Moslem) is the preferred form to refer to a person who
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M02_DEVI3066_CH02_pp024-049.indd 37 defined intimacy as the feeling that you can be honest and open when talking about yourself,
Points and discussions of a variety of clearly workplace related topics such as workplace mes-
sharing thoughts and feelings that you don’t reveal in other relationships (Mackey, Diemer, &

adheres to the religious teachings of Islam. Quran (rather than Koran) is the preferred term
O’Brien, 2000).
sages, values in the workplace as seen by long- and short-term oriented executives, emotions
female) is considered derogatory.
for the scriptures of Islam. Jewish people is often preferred to Jews, and Jewess (a Jewish
The intimacy stage usually divides itself into two phases. In the interpersonal commit-
ment phase, the two people commit themselves to each other in a private way. In the social
at work, romantic relationships in the workplace, and workplace conflict. When English-language history books were being written exclusively from a European
179
Essentials of Small Groups and Teams
bonding phase, the commitment is made public—perhaps to family and friends, perhaps to
Online groups vary a great deal in terms of norms and, as with all
the public at large, perhaps with a simple “married to” on Facebook. Here you and your part-
A separate booklet, The Interviewing Guidebook, focusing on informative and employ-
groups, it’s wise to familiarize yourself with the norms of the group before
ner become a unit, an identifiable pair.
perspective, Europe was taken as the focal point and the rest of the world was defined in
actively participating. For example, social media groups will vary greatly in
ment interviews, is available for packaging with this book or for purchase separately.
their tolerance for self-promotion and commercializing. LinkedIn groups
terms of its location relative to that continent. Thus, Asia became “the East” or “the Orient,”
and other sites frown upon self-promotion and may ostracize you for
Throughout your communication interactions, you’ll need to make choices between
DeteRiORatiOn
and Asians became “Orientals”—a term that is today considered inappropriate or “Eurocentric.”
doing so. And even if you don’t get thrown off Facebook, you’re likely to
The relationship deterioration stage is characterized by a weakening of the bonds between
saying one thing or another, between sending an e-mail or calling on the phone, between
incur considerable negative reaction. On the other hand, other groups—for
It is preferable simply to refer to people from Asia as Asians, just as people from Africa are
Explore the Exercise
example, the listserv for communication professionals, called Crtnet—
Africans and people from Europe are Europeans.
the friends or lovers. The first phase of deterioration is usually intrapersonal dissatisfaction:
“Learning to Hear Stage Talk”
being supportive or critical, and so on. Because of the central importance of choice, Com-
frequently includes posts in which individual members will advertise their
You begin to experience personal dissatisfaction with everyday interactions and begin
at MyCommunicationLab
own books. Sometimes, a group will tolerate self-promotion officially while
to view the future with your partner more negatively. If this dissatisfaction grows, you
individual members may look on the posts very negatively.
munication Choice Points (brief scenarios placed in the margins) invite you to analyze
pass to the second phase, interpersonal deterioration. You withdraw and grow further and
Norms may apply to individual members as well as to the group as
further apart. You share less of your free time. You exchange fewer messages. When
Affectional Orientation Generally, gay is the preferred term to refer to a man who has
your choices for communicating. the United States might prefer to get right down to business, those
a whole and, of course, will differ from one cultural group to another
you’re together, there are awkward silences, fewer disclosures, less physical contact, and a
an affectional preference for other men, and lesbian is the preferred term for a woman who
(Axtell, 1990, 1993). For example, although business associates from
lack of psychological closeness. Conflicts become more common and their resolution
In addition, a Video Choice Point box appears in each chapter inviting you to watch
more difficult.
has an affectional preference for other women. (Lesbian means “homosexual woman,” so the
from Japan might prefer rather elaborate socializing before addressing
Relationship deterioration involves unique communication patterns. During the dete-
a video related to the chapter contents and to examine effective and ineffective choices ViewpoInTS
term lesbian woman is redundant.) Homosexual refers to both gays and lesbians, but more
the business at hand. In the United States, men and women in business
rioration stage you may, for example, increase withdrawal, communicate less, respond to
are expected to interact when making business decisions as well as
that the actors use in a variety of communication situations. lesbian identification and not only to sexual behavior. Gay as a noun, although widely used,
often to a sexual orientation to members of one’s own sex. Gay and lesbian refer to a gay and
Facebook pokes and requests for “likes” less often; texting becomes infrequent, and face-
when socializing. In Muslim and Buddhist societies, however, religious
Group norms
to-face meetings are fewer. In communication, each person reduces his or her level of self-
restrictions prevent mixing between the sexes. In some cultures (e.g.,
Because the messages you use have effects on others, they also have ethical implica- What norms govern your family? What norms govern your
disclosure. These patterns are in part a response to the deterioration; you communicate the
those of the United States, Bangladesh, Australia, Germany, Finland,
What norms govern your class in human communication?
may prove offensive in some contexts, as in “We have gays in our office.” Because most
way you do because you feel that your relationship is in trouble. However, these patterns
and Hong Kong), punctuality for business meetings is very important.
tions. As such, ethics receives focused attention throughout the text. Chapter 1 place of work? Do you have any difficulty with these norms?
orientation and
are also causative: The communication patterns you use largely determine the fate of your
scientific thinking holds that sexuality is largely biologically determined, the terms sexual
relationship. ations is even expected. In the United States and in much of Asia and Europe, meet-
Panama), punctuality is less important; being late is no great insult and in some situ-
But in others (e.g., those of Morocco, Italy, Brazil, Zambia, Ireland, and affectional orientation are preferred to sexual preference or sexual status
Communication
(which also is vague). In the case of same-sex marriages—there are two husbands or two
ings are held between two parties. In many Persian Gulf states, however, a business
Choice point
executive is likely to conduct meetings with several different groups—sometimes
Video Choice point dealing with totally different issues—at the same time. In the United States very little Group Culture
wives. In a male-male marriage, each person is referred to as husband and in the case of
Coming Clean touching such as hand holding is common and is a gesture of friendship. You’re new to an organization
interpersonal touching goes on during business meetings, but in Arab countries
female-female marriage, each person is referred to as wife. Some same-sex couples—espe-
Sally and Jim have been communicating online for some time after meeting on Match.com. cially those who are not married—prefer the term “partner” or “lover”.
and want to learn, as quickly as possible, its
She likes what she has learned about Jim and would like to see the relationship make it to the next stage. operating cultural rules, which you don’t
They’re now planning to meet face-to-face for the first time. But, Sally realizes that she’s going to have to seeking out this information?
want to violate. What choices do you have for
high-Context and low-Context Cultures A cultural distinction that has
admit that she lied about her age and a few other things. She’s analyzed her choices as to how she can Age Older person is generally preferred to elder, elderly, senior, or senior citizen (which
special relevance to small group communication is that between high-context and
communicate these admissions without damaging the potential for a more intimate relationship. See how
low-context cultures (Hall, 1976; Singh & Pereira, 2005). In a high-context culture (for
her choices play out in the video “Coming Clean”. is communicated by the context, or in the person, rather than explicitly coded in verbal
technically refers to someone older than 65). Terms designating age are rarely necessary.
example, Japan, China, Korea, Malaysia, and Indonesia) much of the information conveyed
Watch the Video “Coming Clean” at MyCommunicationLab messages. In such cultures, individuals have a great deal of information in common, and this
There are times, of course, when you need to refer to a person’s age group, but most of the
are usually irrelevant.
shared knowledge does not have to be made explicit. In a low-context culture (for example,
time you don’t—in much the same way that gender, race, and affectional orientation terms
Denmark, Germany, the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand), most informa-
tion is communicated through explicitly stated verbal messages. In such
cultures, people do not assume that they share certain information and
so must make all crucial details explicit.
Members of high-context cultures spend a lot of time getting to know
Sex Generally, the term girl should be used only to refer to very young females and is equiv-
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M07_DEVI3066_CH07_pp136-155.indd 141 and therefore do not have that shared knowledge. As a result everything
each other before engaging in any small group interaction. Because of this
prior personal knowledge, a great deal of information is already shared and
alent to boy. Neither term should be used for people older than 13 or 14. Girl is never used to
therefore does not have to be explicitly stated. Members of low-context
refer to a grown woman, nor is boy used to refer to people in blue-collar positions, as it once
cultures, on the other hand, spend less time getting to know each other
was. Lady is negatively evaluated by many because it connotes the stereotype of the prim and
proper woman. Woman or young woman is preferred.
has to be stated explicitly. When this simple difference is not taken into
account, misunderstandings can result. For example, the directness and
explicitness characteristic of the low-context culture may prove insulting,
The term ma’am, originally an honorific used to show respect, is probably best avoided
insensitive, or unnecessary to members of a high-context culture.
marital status (Angier, 2010).
since today it’s often used as a verbal tag to comment (indirectly) on the woman’s age or
Conversely, to someone from a low-context culture, members from a high-
context culture may appear vague, underhanded, and even dishonest in
their reluctance to be explicit or to engage in what a low-context culture
would consider to be open and direct communication.
“Honey, please don’t talk to Daddy when he’s in a chat room.”
© Jack Ziegler/Condé Nast Publications/www.cartoonbank.com
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