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Wild Turkeys, Quail, Grouse, and Pheasants 143

disease in the second. This sensitivity continues through adulthood, and as a rule birds should
never be raised in mixed flocks or crowded conditions.
In the wild, even though species may share a common habitat, they usually do not have enough
close contact to allow disease transference. In many species, very little is known about disease
transference and textbooks on avian medicine freely discuss this (Altman et al. 1997), though new
information is continually being discovered. Check with an avian veterinarian experienced in
game birds for specifics of diseases, species incompatibility, and drug sensitivities. Use antibiotics
sparingly in wild Galliformes as they may suppress the birds’ immune systems. Antiprotozoals
may be necessary in some species, particularly turkeys, and are often included in commercial tur-
key diets.
Commercial feeds, which are developed specifically for certain species, may be toxic to other
Galliformes. For instance, feed developed for chickens may be toxic to pheasants and partridge due
to the addition of halofuginone. Commercial turkey food containing antiprotozoals can inhibit
cecal flora and cause death in grouse and other sensitive species (Altman et al. 1997). For this rea-
son, natural food is best for the wild Galliformes.

Mud-balling

Mud‐balling may occur with ground‐dwelling birds, both in the wild and in captive care (Figure 8.3).
The problem begins when wet conditions turn the soil sticky, allowing it to adhere to the feet of
young birds (Welty 1982). Multiple layers build up around the feet until they are encased around a
ball – thus the term mud‐balling. This may cause death from exhaustion as the bird struggles to
free itself, or is unable to walk, eat, or maintain other normal behaviors. In captivity, this process
can occur in brooders with very young chicks, or in outdoor facilities. Wet feces mixed with any
soft substrate, such as wood shavings, can also cause balling. Foot deformities can result from even
minor cases if not corrected quickly. The hardened material acts as a cast, retarding growth in

Figure 8.3 Mud-balling causes foot deformity and death in young Galliformes if not noticed early. It occurs
in wet conditions allowing mud and feces to collect on the feet of a chick.