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Avian Paramyxoviruses | 89

Host range 2016a; Fereidouni et al., 2018) but have also been isolated from
APMV serotypes other than APMV-1 have been isolated from duck (Yamane et al., 1982), swan (Umali et al., 2014; Fereidouni
many species of domestic and wild birds (Table 3.2). It is prob- et al., 2018) and stint (Karamendin et al., 2016a; Fereidouni et
able that all species of birds are capable of infection with one or al., 2018). APMV-9 viruses were isolated from domestic duck
more APMV serotypes. Wild birds, especially waterfowl, are the (Sandhu and Hinshaw, 1981) and feral duck (Capua et al., 2004).
main natural reservoir for APMVs. Among APMVs, APMV-1 Very little is known about the host range of the other APMV
is widespread in waterfowl followed by APMV-4 and APMV-6 serotypes isolated recently. APMV-10, APMV-11, and APMV-12
(Muzyka et al., 2014). Although the natural host range for each were isolated from Rockhopper penguins in Falkland Islands
APMV serotype is mostly unknown, it seems that the host range (Miller et al., 2010), common snipes in France (Briand et al.,
of these viruses is generally more restricted than that of APMV-1. 2012) and Eurasian wigeons in Italy (Terregino et al., 2013),
Some of the APMV serotypes are even more host range restricted respectively. APMV-13 viruses were reported from wild geese in
than others. Also strains within an APMV serotype may have Japan (Yamamoto et al., 2015) and from Ukraine (Goraichuk et
strain-specific host ranges. Although poultry are not the natural al., 2016) and from an unknown wild bird in Kazakhstan (Kara-
hosts for other APMV serotypes, studies have demonstrated that mendin et al., 2016b). In 2017, eight novel APMV serotypes were
wild birds are capable of transmitting and spreading other APMV reported: from wild ducks in Japan (Thampaisarn et al., 2017)
serotypes to poultry (Warke et al., 2008a, b; Choi et al., 2013). and Korea (Lee et al., 2017), a migratory shorebird in Brazil
APMV-2 viruses have been isolated from chickens, turkeys, (Thomazelli et al., 2017), three novel APMV serotypes from Ant-
passerines and psittacines across the globe (Bankowski et al., arctic penguins (Neira et al., 2017), a novel APMV serotype from
1960; Asahara et al., 1973; Collings et al., 1975; Alexander et gulls in Kazakhstan (Karamendin et al., 2017) and a novel APMV
al., 1982; Lipkind et al., 1982). APMV-2 viruses are frequently serotype from wild bird faeces in Korea (Jeong et al., 2018).
isolated from passerine and psittacine birds suggesting that these
birds may be the natural reservoir for APMV-2 (Bankowski et al.,
1968; Bradshaw and Jensen, 1979; Senne et al., 1983). APMV-2 Disease associated with avian
viruses are rarely isolated from rails and ducks. Interestingly, paramyxoviruses
APMV-2 was also isolated from Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus Virulent strains of APMV-1 (NDV) are known to cause severe
magellanicus) in Brazil (Fornells et al., 2012). APMV-3 viruses disease in poultry but very little is known about the disease
have been isolated from domestic turkeys and chickens in differ- potential of other APMV serotypes. Since many of the viruses
ent parts of the world (Lipkind et al., 1979; Tumova et al., 1979; belonging to other APMV serotypes were isolated during routine
Macpherson et al., 1983; Andral and Toquin, 1984; Zeydanli et surveillance from birds in quarantine, hunter-killed or apparently
al., 1988). Most APMV-3 isolates from non-domesticated species healthy wild birds, faeces of unknown wild bird, or apparently
originated from Psittaciformes. Some passerines are also suscepti- healthy poultry, it is difficult to assign any specific disease sign to
ble to APMV-3 (Alexander and Chettle, 1978; Alexander, 1980). the virus infection. The disease signs associated with isolations
APMV-2-like and APMV-3-like viruses have been recovered from of APMVs are summarized in Table 3.2. Among all other APMV
cynomolgus monkeys and pigs, respectively (Nishikawa et al., serotypes, APMV-5 causes a severe disease in budgerigars that is
1977a; Lipkind et al., 1986). APMV-2 and APMV-3 are more fre- characterized by depression, dyspnoea, diarrhoea, and torticol-
quently isolated from chickens and turkeys than are other APMV lis and up to 90–100% mortality (Yoshida et al., 1977; Nerome
serotypes. APMV-4 viruses seem to have a wide host range. Wild et al., 1978). The disease potential of APMV-3 depends on the
birds, particularly waterfowl, are known reservoirs and important virus strain and the avian species. APMV-3 infection in Neophema
carriers of APMV-4 (Stanislawek et al., 2002; Parthiban et al., species of birds was shown to cause 70% mortality (Jung et al.,
2013). But APMV-4 viruses have also been detected in domestic 2009). Some APMV-3 strains may cause encephalitis in several
ducks, geese and occasionally in chickens (Shortridge and Alex- psittacine species (Tumova et al., 1979). APMV-2, APMV-3,
ander, 1978; Turek et al., 1984; Wang et al., 2013). APMV-5 was APMV-6 and APMV-7 have been reported to cause mild disease
first isolated from an epizootic outbreak involving budgerigars in domestic poultry (Alexander and Senne, 2008). Specifically,
at Kunitachi, Japan (Mustaffa-Babjee et al., 1974; Nerome et al., APMV-2 has been associated with respiratory disease, reduced
1978). Since then, there have been only few reports in other parts egg production and infertility in turkeys (Lipkind et al., 1979;
of the world of APMV-5 infection in budgerigars (Yoshida et al., Bankowski et al., 1981). APMV-3 strain Netherlands has been
1977; Gough et al., 1993; Hiono et al., 2016). Budgerigars are experimentally shown to cause respiratory disease in turkeys and
considered the only natural host of APMV-5. APMV-6 viruses stunted growth in young chickens (Alexander and Collins, 1982;
have been isolated from a wide range of avian species, including Alexander et al., 1983b). However, there are no reports of natural
ducks, geese, teal, red-necked stint and turkeys (Shortridge et infections of chickens with APMV-3. The pathogenic potential of
al., 1980; Chang et al., 2001; Stanislawek et al., 2002; Bui et al., APMV-4 is mostly unknown. Experimental infection of chickens
2014; Karamendin et al., 2016a). APMV-7 viruses are prevalent showed microscopic lesions in internal organs but no signs of
in pigeons and doves (Alexander and Senne, 2008), but have clinical disease (Warke et al., 2008b). APMV-5 cause diarrhoea
also been isolated from turkeys (Saif et al., 1997) and ostriches and high mortality in budgerigars but not in chickens and ducks
(Woolcock et al., 1996). APMV-8 viruses were isolated mostly (Alexander and Senne, 2008). APMV-6 and APMV-7 have been
from geese (Cloud and Rosenberger, 1980; Karamendin et al., shown to cause mild respiratory disease and a decrease in egg