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that are the basis for norms of behaviour. These norms influence the way
in which people interact with each other, including interaction involving

business activities. According to Bradley (2002), there are two main ways
to develop cultural norms and values: socialisation, referring both to life
experiences and the influence of institutions such as family, religion and

the education system; and acculturation, which refers to a voluntary
process of learning. Others define culture as the ‘configuration of learned

behaviour and results of behaviour whose component elements are
shared and transmitted by members of a particular society’. Others define
culture as the sum total of learned beliefs, values and customs that serve

to direct consumer behaviour in a particular country market (Doole and
Lowe, 2008).

4.5 Cross-cultural analysis

Culture may be defined as ‘the interactive aggregate of common

characteristics that influence a group’s response to its environment’
(Hofstede, 1980, p. 19). Tse et al. (1997) observe that culture affects
preferences for particular states of affairs, specific social processes, rules

for selective attention, and interpretation of environmental cues and
responses. Doole and Lowe (2008) state that strategists and marketers

need to develop their own model of classification to compare and contrast
consumers, market segments and buyers across cultures. There is no
recognised universal framework within which to visualise national cultures

(Doole and Lowe, 2008). This is no surprise, as culture might be one
concept but this concept could have different classifications in different

countries and even different regions. Two sets of scholars, Hofstede and
Bond (1984) and Hall and Hall (1987) further investigate culture.

4.6 Hofstede and Bond study

Hofstede and Bond (1984; 1994) conducted two surveys of cultural
attitudes of IBM employees in 40 countries; over 116,000 questionnaires

were completed (1980–94). Using anthropological classification, Hofstede
defines culture as the act of collective ‘mental programming’, and notes

that culture is difficult to change, unless one separates the individuals from