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their culture within a nation. Culture changes only slowly, considering what
has been fixed in the minds of the people (e.g. government, legal, religious

and educational systems). Hofstede’s study (1980) considers the four
main dimensions of culture which is discussed below.

4.6.1 Large or small power distance

The element of power distance reflects the extent to which members of
society accept that power in institutions and organisations is distributed

unequally. Citizens of high power distance countries accept a hierarchical
order in which everyone has a place, which requires no further justification.

In countries with small power distance, the population may demand
justification for inequalities in power. The fundamental issue here is how

society deals with the fact that people are unequal. Other societies try to
play down inequalities in power and wealth, as much as possible. Surely
no society has reached complete equality, because there are strong forces

in society that perpetuate existing inequalities. In organisations, the level
of power distance is related to the degree of centralisation of authority and

the degree of autocratic leadership. This relation shows that centralisation
and autocratic leadership are rooted in the ‘mental programming’ of the
members of a society, not only in those in power but also in those at the

bottom of the power hierarchy. Societies in which we are unequal can
remain so because this situation satisfies the psychological need of the

people without power for dependence.

4.6.2 Strong or weak uncertainty avoidance

This shows the degree of uncertainty that a particular community finds
tolerable. Countries that strongly avoid uncertainty tend to maintain rigid

codes of belief and behaviour, and are intolerant towards deviant persons
and ideas. In cultures with less anxiety towards the future, practice counts
more than principles, and deviance is more easily tolerated (Currie, 1991).

The basic issue involved is how society deals with the fact that we are all
caught in the reality of past, present and future. We have to live with the

uncertainty of the unknown future; some societies socialise into accepting
this and not becoming upset by it. People in such societies will tend to
accept each day as it comes. They will take risks rather easily. They will