Page 86 - Made For Trade Chinese Export Paintings In Dutch Collections

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comparable as a phenomenon with this earlier the port of Canton. The proper appellation was
transnational movement? In attempting to yang hang shang; that is: sea or ocean wholesale
answer this question, I have noticed that it is not merchant. The members of the Cohong
so much a question of distinguishing or controlled all foreign trade in Canton after
comparing two different painting conventions 1782. 111 In addition to making agreements on
and styles, but rather it is a question of a unique price, as John K. Fairbank’s research teaches us,
phenomenon that, despite existing geographical “they guaranteed duties, negotiated with and
borders, was created from existing trade and restrained the foreigners, controlled smuggling
which seeped seamlessly through these [...], they also managed all the aspects of
boundaries. Chinese export painting reveals not banking, acted as interpreting agencies,
only “the traces of the global in the local,” but, supported militia and educations institutions, 85
in fact, this phenomenon can be regarded as a and made all manners of presents and
material concept of the historical China trade, contributions to the authorities far and near.” 112
created within this global trade frame. This The Western captain-merchants often came to
genre must be studied as a phenomenon in itself, visit their Chinese counterparts and this was also
with a clearly distinguishable specific use value an easy way to engage in private trade, outside
and a specific function. These two transnational of the official company accounts. Export
movements can only partially be compared. paintings were mainly purchased as souvenirs
‘Dutch export paintings’ were vaunted in their and gifts and fulfilled an important role in the
own country, in contrast to the Chinese interiors of the owner’s homes. Although this
paintings made for export. In the Netherlands at mechanism was not so applicable to the (small)
that time, paintings were not produced with the Dutch market, many of the acquired paintings,
sole intention to export the product to distant once they reached the West, were sold for
places. Nor was the point that the taste of the considerable profit at auctions. 113 Just like their
‘foreigner’ should be central to the manufacture. Western colleagues, Chinese hong merchants
This contrasts with Chinese export painting commissioned many portraits. This resulted in a
practice, in which the Western clientele had a different target group for the export painters.
huge role in determining a number of aspects Portraits by Mouqua, Houqua, Chi Ying, Eshing
relating to production. The economic principle, and others, have since spread all over the world
however, and the idea of painting purely for the and, although not in the Netherlands, ended up
market place were on equal footing: the faster in (museum)collections.
the production, the more could be sold. This Generally in a transnational chain of supply
meant more money in the coffers and the more and demand, it is an art dealer, the middleman,
successful the business. Presumably, financial who provides the linkages between sellers and
profit was not the sole motive for the painters. buyers at critical points along the trajectory of
Attaining fame and, in pursuit of this, artistic cross-cultural exchanges. They move, as Steiner
rivalry, must also have played an important role. puts it, “objects across the institutional obstacles
Turning back to the Chinese export painting which, in some cases, they themselves have
market at the time of the historical China trade, constructed in order to restrict direct
it is known that in this very efficient market exchange.” 114 The nineteenth-century Chinese
system of global dimensions, the sale of export painting market worked slightly
paintings and watercolours took place from the differently than, for example, the contemporary
artists’ studios and were also displayed and art market in Côte d'Ivoire, where, so Steiner
sometimes sold in the homes of members of the states, “supplies of art objects from villages are
Cohong. This umbrella organisation for Chinese tapped by professional African traders who
merchants had operated as a type of guild since travel through rural communities in search of
1720. 110 A hong merchant was authorised to whatever they believe can be resold.” 115 With
deal exclusively with foreigners from Europe and regard to the Chinese transcultural market, the
America, and from the ports of Asia, or with producers were artists, designers, painters and
those foreigners who came from ‘beyond seas’ to sellers alike. They primarily sold their paintings

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110 Garrett 2002, 89. For more information about the Cohong and its merchants see Van Dyke 2007, 2011.
111 Wei 2011, 5.
112 Fairbank 1953, 51.
113 Wei 2011, 5.
114 Steiner 1994, 131.
115 Ibid.