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74 Big Data Analytics for Connected Vehicles and Smart Cities Connected and Autonomous Vehicles 75

services and data. However, it can also be assumed that the role of the public
sector will grow as the market matures when higher market penetrations will
provide support for safety applications such as collision avoidance. It should
also be noted that the emergence of autonomous vehicles, with their ability to
navigate roads and highways with no input from the driver and developed en-
tirely by the private sector, could disrupt the later market for safety applications.

4.10 Big Data and Connectivity

An important aspect of the use of big data that is impacted by connected ve-
hicles lies in the relative cost of vehicle probe data from connected vehicles
compared to the collection of data from fixed roadside infrastructure sensors.
The growing availability of private sector data from the vehicle is likely to place
the vehicle at the center of the data collection universe. In order to understand
how this should influence future data collection and data acquisition strategies
for the public sector, it will be necessary to assess the relative cost of vehicle
probe data versus fixed-sensor data. The cost of installation, maintenance, sen-
sor operation, and data management should be compared against the cost of ac-
quiring data from connected vehicle operators. This latter option is like that of
current private data operators such as INRIX [12] and HERE [13]. Both con-
nected and autonomous vehicles will benefit from the application of big data,
converging with the two-way conductivity to and from the vehicle. Possibilities
will emerge for automated fleet operation and a higher level of decision sup-
port for vehicles that still have human operators. The intelligence of automated
vehicles will also improve using big data and conductivity. Analytics conducted
on a big data set will reveal trends and patterns in both vehicle operation and
driver behavior that can be incorporated into future artificial intelligence and
machine learning approaches. Conductivity will support the extraction of data
from vehicles and the provision of control and decision-support information to
the vehicles.

4.11 Connected and Autonomous Vehicles within a Smart City

It is obvious that an important element of a smart city from a transportation
perspective will be the use of autonomous vehicles. These will include private
cars, transit vehicles, and freight vehicles that are able to operate without a
driver. It is worth looking ahead to what the possible shape of a smart city that
incorporates autonomous vehicles.
A possible scenario for autonomous vehicles would be in support of
on-demand transportation services. This would reduce the need to own a ve-
hicle and extend the concept of as a service from information technology to