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deals with matters that the Xuande emperor was fond of The subsequent Chenghua emperor, however, with the
while he was alive, suggest the likelihood that it was support of eunuchs, did entertain thoughts of resuming
originally drafted by senior officials intending to further state-sponsored voyages. This was, however, strongly
curtail spending at the imperial court. But since the emperor opposed by officials such as Liu Daxia, quoted earlier, whose
had passed away, the document could only be distributed view was supported by the high-ranking Minister of War
together with his posthumous edict. The Edict to Stop Xiang Zhong 項忠 (1421–1502). But the enormous cost of
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Collecting and Capturing would appear in its entirety in the the voyages and their perceived lack of benefit were not the
initial decree of the Zhengtong 正統 emperor (r. 1436–49), only reason why officials opposed them. Another reason had
which was also drafted by Yang Shiqi. In addition, shortly to do with the fact that pepper (hujiao 胡椒) and sappanwood
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after the Xuande emperor’s death, his mother Empress (sumu 蘇木), brought back by Zheng He’s fleets from
Dowager Zhang 張 (1379–1442) ordered the removal of all of Southeast Asia, had been distributed to officials as wages
his former playthings, such as cricket jars, from the palace. over an extended period of time. During Zheng He’s first
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This suggests that the edict to suspend state-sponsored voyage, they were brought back to China as rare goods. It is
maritime voyages was actually issued by senior officials with said that the spices commanded an official price that was 20
the support of the empress dowager at the time of the times higher than their value overseas. Since pepper and
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emperor’s illness and death. sappanwood were considered rare and expensive, they were
On a broader level, the pursuit of economic benefit had bestowed upon high-ranking officials and members of the
become an unavoidable social trend in China starting from aristocracy as a special reward.
the early Ming, and especially during the Xuande reign, Over time, however, the quantity of pepper and
given the rise of private maritime trade and local handicraft sappanwood brought back to China increased. Apart from
industries, the monetarisation of silver and the development Zheng He’s voyages, foreign envoys also presented the spices
of domestic and international commodity markets. The as tribute. This led to the amassing of an enormous stockpile
Ming empire also faced numerous problems at the end of of spices. Oversupply caused the prices of pepper and
the Xuande reign, which included excessive spending by sappanwood to depreciate rapidly in the market. Faced with
the imperial court that affected state finances, spices laying to waste in storage, the Ming government
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depreciation of the official currency, and economic decided to use pepper and sappanwood as a form of
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instability. Under these circumstances, the Ming currency to give to labourers and soldiers, and as a part of
government could not ignore economic considerations and the salary given to civil and military officials in Nanjing and
other pressing social concerns, and risk investing vast Beijing. The earliest record of the distribution of pepper and
resources into state-sponsored maritime voyages. Senior sappanwood to officials as remuneration dates to 1422.
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officials, together with the empress dowager and the eunuch Later on, the proportion of spices fluctuated, but eventually
Wang Zhen 王振 (d. 1449), took advantage of the the Ming government established a standard practice of
circumstances and the opportunity to issue edicts to allotting money as salary in the first half of the year and
urgently correct the problems in rulership under the spices in the second half. 37
Xuande emperor during his later years. The fact that the Around 50 years later in 1471, perhaps due to the
Zhengtong emperor’s enthronement edict makes no diminishing stock of spices and dissatisfaction among
mention of state-sponsored maritime voyages can be officials, pepper and sappanwood were at one point replaced
considered the official end point of this enterprise. The by cloth from the imperial treasury as part of official salary.
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death of Zheng He during his seventh voyage, in the However, the arrangement of distributing money in the first
Xuande reign, is another reason for its termination. half of the year and spices in the second half to officials still
continued. This practice only stopped in 1481, when there
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Attempt to resume the voyages and its abandonment was less than a year’s salary worth of spices in storage and
during the Chenghua reign (1465–87) the emperor agreed to replace spices with other currency in
Following the death of the Xuande emperor, the Zhengtong the official salary. Thus, from 1422 to 1481, that is for
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emperor ascended the throne at a very young age. He was around 60 years in the early part of the Ming dynasty, part
guided by a group of senior officials who had long opposed of the remuneration of officials in the two capitals was paid
maritime voyages, so resuming them was not possible at the in the form of pepper and sappanwood. If one includes the
time. The Jingtai 景泰 emperor (r. 1450–56), who became years when these spices were distributed to labourers and
ruler after the Tumu 土木 debacle in 1449, concentrated his soldiers during the Yongle reign, then the history of the
attention on internal affairs. He also did not consider Ming government imposing pepper and sappanwood as
sending fleets overseas. When the Zhengtong emperor currency lasted for more than 70 years. 41
retook the throne with the new reign title Tianshun 天順 The Ming government had in effect partially shifted its
(r. 1457–64), there were suggestions to resume state- own financial crisis on to civil and military officials. Pepper
sponsored voyages, but these were strongly and immediately and sappanwood were nearly worthless to officials at the
opposed by officials who reasoned that the state had more time as there was no market for them, and no household
pressing concerns, namely the threat spreading across the needed the amount distributed. Officials who had devoted
country of farmers leaving their farms to evade taxes. The many years of their lives to serving the state struggled to eke
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issue was dropped. The emperor largely continued policies out a living and support their families on their income. Not
from the early Zhengtong reign that was relatively stable, surprisingly, this led to deep dissatisfaction among officials.
and maritime voyages were no longer considered. In fact, not only were the spices given as part of their salary

The Gradual Termination of the Early Ming Voyages to the ‘Western Ocean’ and its Causes | 111