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image (for example, an animal, mountain etc.) on a jar refers
to the Sanli tu system (see Pl. 13.1 left). We might also ask,
why did this jar, made in the Jiajing period, not follow the
conventions of the Da Ming jili?

Why was ceramic chosen as the primary material for
ritual vessels?
The use of porcelain ritual vessels for ritual practice was a
state order by the emperor, a forceful decree that must be
followed by his court and people, especially at a time when
ritual construction was of utmost importance to a new ruler
trying to establish his legitimacy. Where did the Hongwu
emperor get this new idea from?
It is understood that the frugality advocated by Hongwu
in the early Ming period might explain the use of porcelain
instead of bronze, when there was a shortage of coinage or
copper. In addition, the making of vessel shapes in the
likeness of the services that the ancestors used while living
can also be explained by the Hongwu emperor’s citation of
Confucius, as previously mentioned. Why was ceramic
chosen as the primary material for ritual vessels? According
to earlier studies, we know that ritual vessels made of
ceramic appeared from time to time in history: for example,
some Song dynasty guan wares, Yuan dynasty black pottery
or even Joseon buncheon wares. However, they were often
meant as supplements or substitutes for bronze ritual vessels,
when there were shortages of bronze models. These copied
archaistic bronze styles. Scholars such as Qin Dashu 秦大樹 Plate 13.6 Xizun 犧尊 of Xuanhe bogu tu system in Da Ming jili
have suggested that some Yaozhou and Ding ware were 大明集禮 (Collected Ceremonial of the Ming Dynasty), dated 1530.
produced in the shapes of ritual vessels in the Song dynasty. National Library of China
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These were likely to be sent to the court to supplement
bronze ritual vessels. We learn from documents that the What were the consequences of this new idea?
Southern Song government asked for the substitution of What interests us more is the question of the consequences of
bronze vessels in ritual practices with ceramic ritual vessels this unprecedented and revolutionary decision. What was its
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produced in the Zhejiang area. impact in the early Ming? One would immediately think of
The black pottery from the Yuan dynasty copied archaic it as an important impetus leading to the establishment of
bronze shapes based on the Xuanhe bogu tu system. More the imperial kiln at Jingdezhen in the early Ming period. In
intriguing and oft-cited pieces are the 15th-century Joseon addition, the features of ritual vessels also lead to the
buncheon wares. These above-mentioned examples, however, creation of particular forms of decoration and visual effects
show that ceramics were mainly chosen as substitutes or in imperial wares.
supplements when bronze or metal vessels were in short An obvious impact is the urgent and great demand for
supply or lacking. In a few cases, ceramic wares were chosen ceremonial vessels for ritual practices in the state and
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because they adhered to ancient doctrines, such as heguyi 合古意 kingdoms, local governments and Confucius temples. Liu
(‘matching ancient doctrines’) and qi yong tao pao 器用陶匏 Xinyuan noticed that porcelain had been employed for
(‘employing vessels made of pottery and gourd’). The Ming ceremonial use as early as the first year of the Hongwu reign
dynasty is the first instance when ceramic itself was regarded for worshipping the emperor’s ancestors at the Nanjing
primarily to serve as the material for ritual vessels in such a Taimiao. Christine Lau tried to link extant Ming imperial
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wide range of contexts, in their usual ceramic shapes, from wares to corresponding documents, especially the ritual
the imperial to regional courts and local governments. vessels used in suburban sacrifices, including monochrome
The last point, not to be overlooked, is the role of the lead porcelain jue copying bronze-shaped bowls and dishes.
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official for early Ming ritual reform, Tao An 陶安 (1312?–68). Hsieh Yu-chen explored many more relevant documents
According to the investigation by Hsieh Yu-chen 謝玉珍, related to this issue and suggested that this decision by the
Tao An was once appointed as the local prefect of Raozhou Hongwu emperor might have led to the establishment of the
饒州, where he might have learned about ceramic making in imperial kiln during the early Ming dynasty.
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Jingdezhen; this might have inspired the proposal to employ What signifiers for ritual vessels express their
ceramic as the primary material for ritual vessels. This distinctiveness from other common utensils? It is difficult to
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information is crucial to our discussion of the possible differentiate ritual vessels from daily utensils made of
origins of this unprecedented change in ritual vessels. More ceramics. Almost no trace of archaic ritual shapes can be
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supporting evidence for this speculation will be explored found apart from jue 爵 and zhou 舟 (or he 盉). This is the
further in the future. main reason why scholars of ceramic studies do not pay too

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