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attractive), and secured a referendum for the 9th January 2011, which culminated in the most
successful referendum ever (98.83%) leading to the independence of Southern Sudan (South
Sudan) from Sudan.

Between 2013 and 2016, the SPLM split into three factions: the Juba faction led by General
Salva Kiir Mayardit, SPLM in opposition, IO, led by Dr. Riek Machar and former detainees
(former members of the SPLM political bureau, known as G/FDs 10, led by former Secretary
General Pagan Amuom). Unlike other liberation movements in Africa that captured state power,

South Sudan degenerated into civil war three years after independence, triggering interest into
this study, especially after the conclusion reached by melbar that after the liberation movements
come to power they become part of the problems facing that state (Johnson, 2016).

The fact that SPLM/M was in power from 2005 and formally 2011-2016 did not confer the
legitimacy; neither does it mean that the struggle against internal and external forces was complete.
Rather than it presented itself with an opportunity to address the social and national issue that
justified the armed struggle against the Khartoum regime in the first place(SAD.887/9/15). The
question that arises is that, what SPLM promised the people of South Sudan that won their

hearts and minds, to support it and whether the movement lived to its liberation war promises.
Although other national liberation movements and nationalist parties registered notable gains
in the formidable years after independence, especially in the field of health, education and

infrastructure, the SPLM degenerated into civil war culminated in one of the serious humanitarian
crises in Africa and the world. (Johnson, 2016) Corruption, factionalism, nepotism, economic
and financial mismanagement and increased poverty have come to define SPLM leadership in
South Sudan. Degeneration into civil war and neo-patrimonial politics suggests lack of clarity
on the necessity of liberation struggle and why it was waged for decades. SPLM has been unable

or reluctant to commence structural transformation of the state, economy and society, concludes
David Hollenbach (2011).

The formation of the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement and Army in 1983 was triggered by
rise of nationalism and desire to secede from Khartoum oppressive regime. This work section

therefore, set out the foundation under which the SPLM as a liberation movement would be
understood(SAD.887/9/15).

4.2 Sudan People’s Liberation Movement

Circumstances surrounding the formation of SPLM in August 1983 are contentious, but SPLM
was formed due to the opposition to colonial domination, economic and labour exploitation,

cultural repression and denial of individual and groups, liberties, freedoms and social rights. The
formation of SPLMby John Garang de Mabior, followed military confrontation between Anyanya
(I) remnants who had begun military operations in Eastern Upper Nile in 1978 to fight for the
independence of Southern Sudan after the signing of the Addis Ababa Agreement 8 March 1972,
in which the rejectionists, Anyanya Patriotic Front, led by Gordon Mortat Mayen, regarded as

betrayal of their cause for the liberation of Southern Sudan. John Garang de Mabior, the founder

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