Page 430 - Deep Learning

Notes to Pages 73–75 413

function follows form principle that highlights the role of exploration of a given
material in generating the goal for a creative process.
36. Gruber (1974).
37. Bradshaw (1992) and Wright (1920/1988).
38. Cooper (1992), Hertzmann (1957) and Orenstein (1967). But see Alty (1995) for an
application of the heuristic search theory to musical composition.
39. Thorndike (1898).
40. Alexander Bain (1879): “In the full detail of Constructiveness, we shall have to
exemplify these three main conditions: – namely, (1) a previous command of the
elements entering into the combination; (2) a sense of the effect to be produced;
and (3) a voluntary process of trial and error continued until the desired effect
is actually produced” (p. 572). And again, C. Lloyd Morgan (1894): “The chick,
or the child, in early hours or days of life acquires skill in the management of ...
its bodily organs. … The method employed is that of trial and error. What we
term the control over our activities is gained in and through the conscious rein-
forcement of those modes of response which are successful, and the inhibition of
those modes of response which are unsuccessful” (p. 213).
41. Thorndike (1898); see bottom of page 105.
42. The cognitive revolution in the 1950s has been the subject of historical (Baars,
1986; Gardner, 1985) and philosophical (Greenwood, 1999) studies as well as
personal reminiscences (Mandler, 2002; Miller, 2003; Newell & Simon, 1972b).
But the nature of the research and development work that was carried out dur-
ing World War II and that paved the way for that revolution appears not to have
been the subject of a serious historical study (but see Fortun and Schweber, 1993,
for such a study of the related case of operations research). One obstacle for such
a study is that during the war many of the relevant research and development
activities were classified, while after the war they quickly fell too far behind the
rapidly moving research front to publish. Hence, the work languishes in for-
gotten technical reports in military archives. For example, in an interview with
Bernard J. Baars (1986), George A. Miller said, “… because of the war … Smitty
(S. S.) Stevens at the Psychoacoustics Laboratory [at Harvard University] hired
me to work on voice communications systems for the military. … My special
project was the design of optimal signals for spot jamming of speech. It was a
top secret project. … At my Ph.D. oral only two people were cleared to read my
thesis!” (p. 201). Nevertheless, in their overview of the history of applied cog-
nitive psychology, Hoffman and Deffenbacher (1992) are able to document the
importance of the human factors, or human-machine interaction, aspect of the
wartime work and the closely related issue of training. During the war, “psychol-
ogists were involved in the preparation of training and operations manuals, the
design of radar and sonar consoles, gunsights [sic], communications systems,
aircraft instrument panels, and many other things” (p. 19). As a result, “there was
created a generation of psychologists who specialized in the analysis of train-
ing procedures and human-machine interaction” (p. 19). By forcing attention to
complex, real-world training problems, this development would by itself have
changed cognitive psychology. However, the rise of human-machine interac-
tion as a research topic interacted with the new theoretical perspectives inspired