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Oguh et al.; AJBGE, 2(3): 1-18, 2019; Article no.AJBGE.53356

but is also useful in the management of Nonetheless, several azadirachtin based
phytopathogens. Apart from the physical effects pesticides are sold in the United States and at
of neem oil on pests and fungi, disulfides in the least two such products in the European Union.
oil likely contribute to the bioactivity of this In California, azadirachtin-based insecticides
material [4,40]. More highly valued than neem oil constituted about one third of the botanicals used
are medium- polarity extracts of the seed residue in agriculture in 2003 (ca. 600 kg). In practice,
after removal of the oil, as these extracts contain reliable efficacy is linked to the physiological
the complex triterpene azadirachtin. Neem seeds action of azadirachtin as an insect growth
actually contain more than a dozen azadirachtin regulator; the antifeedant effect, which is
analogues, but the major form is azadirachtin spectacular in the desert locust, is highly variable
and the remaining minor analogues likely among pest species, and even those species
contribute little to overall efficacy of the extract. initially deterred are often capable of rapid
Seed extracts include considerable quantities of desensitization to azadirachtin (Bomford and
other triterpenoids, notably salannin, nimbin, and Isman 1996). What is clear is that azadirachtin is
derivatives thereof. The role of these other considered nontoxic to mammals (rat oral acute
natural substances has been controversial, but LD50 is > 5,000 mg kg−1), fish [45], and
most evidence points to azadirachtin as the most pollinators [46]. The influence of azadirachtin on
important active principle. Neem seeds typically natural enemies is highly variable. Like the
contain 0.2–0.6% azadirachtin by weight, so pyrethrins, azadirachtin is rapidly degraded by
solvent partitions or other chemical processes sunlight. For example, on olives growing in Italy,
are required to concentrate this active ingredient azadirachtin has a half-life of approximately 20 h
[
47]
to level 10–50% seen in the technical . Azadirachtin has systemic effect in certain
grade material used to produce their products crop plants, greatly enhancing its efficacy and
[41]. field persistence [34]. On the other hand, [48]
mentioned further that NeemAzal-T/S had
Azadirachtin has two profound effects on insects. reduced the parasitism rates, to 40, 55.4, 77.8
At the physiological level, azadirachtin blocks the and 81.3% (at 2, 1, 0.5, 0.25% cons.),
synthesis and release of molting hormones respectively, compared to 93.3% on control
(ecdysteroids) from the prothoracic gland, plants.
leading to incomplete ecdysis in immature
insects [11]. In adult female insects, a similar The seed has the highest content of azadirachtin
mechanism of action leads to sterility. In addition, of all plant parts, and most products are based
azadirachtin is a potent antifeedant to many on oil extractions from the seed kernel.
insects. The discovery of neem by western Comparatively lower bioactivity occurs in leaves
science is attributed to Schmutterer [42], who owing to lower concentrations of the bioactive
observed that swarming desert locusts in Sudan compounds. However, many African farmers use
defoliated almost all local flora except for some the leaves in the preparation of crude pest
introduced neem trees. control products, despite low efficacy as the
leaves are easier to use: also, in some cooler
Indeed, azadirachtin was first isolated based on climates neem trees do not flower so do not
its exceptional antifeedant activity in the desert produce seed. Clearly practices need modifying
locust, and this substance remains the most and end-users need information to ensure time
potent locust antifeedant discovered to date. and resources are not wasted using ineffective
Unlike pyrethrins, azadirachtin has defied total materials. Neem seed oil has been formulated
synthesis to this point. In USA, Neem rapidly into hundreds of different products such as
became the modern paradigm for the soaps, medicines and pesticides. A number of
development of botanical pesticides. Enthusiasm Neem pesticidal products are being produced
for neem was fostered by several international and traded internationally, especially from China
conferences in the 1980s and 1990s, and several and India, whereas in Africa neem has enjoyed
volumes dedicated to neem and neem far less success [49].
insecticides have been published [43,34].
Unfortunately, neem’s commercial success has Neem insecticides are effective against many
fallen well short of the initial hype fueled by the caterpillars, flies, whitefly, and scales, and are
explosive scientific literature surrounding it. In somewhat effective against aphids. Neem may
part this is due to the relatively high cost of the not show signs of efficacy for 3–8 days, and it
refined product [44] and the relatively slow action can degrade within 3–5 days. Multiple
on pest insects. applications are generally needed to obtain good

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