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The 19 century m'zuŋ u scramble for Africa
"Veni, Vidi, Vici"

The loss of life and atrocities inspired literature such as Joseph Conrad's novel Heart of

Darkness and raised an international outcry. Debate has been ongoing about the high
death rate in this period. The boldest estimates state that the forced labour system led
directly and indirectly to the deaths of 50 percent of the population

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In the Free State, Leopold exercised total personal control without much delegation to

subordinates. African chiefs played an important role in the administration by
implementing government orders within their communities.

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Failure to meet the rubber collection quotas was punishable by death. Meanwhile, the

Force Publique were required to provide the hand of their victims as proof when they had
shot and killed someone, as it was believed that they would otherwise use the munitions

(imported from Europe at considerable cost) for hunting. As a consequence, the rubber
quotas were in part paid off in chopped-off hands. Sometimes the hands were collected
by the soldiers of the Force Publique, sometimes by the villages themselves. There were

even small wars where villages attacked neighboring villages to gather hands, since their
rubber quotas were too unrealistic to fill. "

"Congo Free State" 78
Wikipedia
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Italian Colonies

“ From 1870, Italians started settling along the Eritrean coast. To counter the French
expansion in the region, the United Kingdom changed its position of supporting Egyptian

rule in Eritrea to supporting the Italian colonisation of Eritrea. In 1885, following Egypt's
retreat from the region, the British helped Italian troops to occupy Massawa, which was

then united to the already colonised port of Assab to consolidate Italy's coastal
possession.”

"Italian Colonization (1890-1941)." 79
Global Security

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“ It's estimated that during the 60 years of Italian colonialism, almost 1 million people
died due to war, deportations, and internment. In the 1920s, when the Italian Army

started a military campaign to recapture the Libyan territories controlled by rebels, they
resorted to widespread summary executions, torture, and mass incarceration. To crush