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Missionaries and the Standardisation of Vernacular Languages 3

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and European languages. However, the concept ‘vernacular’ is here being used
for the sake of convenience to refer to local languages and, thus without any fixed
meanings and judgements.
This paper uses archival data from the Livingstonia Mission, the Dutch
Reformed Church Missions (which includes letters, articles, books and
periodicals), government documents and the Nyasaland United Missionary
Conference Reports. These documents were written between 1875-1935. The
papers are primary sources and thus offer first-hand accounts of missionaries’
activities, opinions and beliefs regarding African languages. Even though the
translations were based on information obtained from Africans, the mission
documents do not show the extent of their involvement in the translation projects.
This may be explained, in part, by the fact missionaries made disparaging remarks
about African culture and languages. Under such circumstances, it would be
problematic for them to acknowledge African agency. Consequently, the paper
presents European attitudes and perceptions towards African languages.

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Livingstonia and Vernacular Languages
The LMS first came to Malawi in 1875 and settled at Cape Maclear in
Mangochi. They brought with them Xhosa evangelists from Lovedale to help in
translating and mediating relations with Africans. Once settled at Cape Maclear,
Robert Laws (head of the LM) worked with Africans to translate English into
Nyanja. Like most nineteenth century missions, their translation work was carried
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out with the explicit aim of proselytisation and education . Roderick MacDonald,
in ‘A History of African Education in Nyasaland, 1875-1945’, demonstrates the
importance of vernacular translations to mission work in Malawi . According to
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MacDonald, missionaries were driven by a sense of urgency to translate scriptures
from English into Nyanja . They were aware of the fact that the success of the
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mission depended upon their ability to communicate with Africans. It is said that

9 U. R. Ananthamurthy, “Globalization, English and ‘Other’ Languages,” Social Scientist
37, no. 7/8 (2009): 53.
10 This section discusses Livingstonia Missions’ projects in Nyanja and not the DRCM
because the DRCM worked amongst the Chewa/Nyanja peoples and by default their
vernacular literature was in Nyanja. Nyanja was also taught as a subject in their vernacular
schools. In fact, Nyanja was the medium of communication in schools and mission stations.
The Livingstonia Mission is thus an interesting case in as far as measuring the impact of
language on identities is concerned having started with Nyanja to Ngoni then Tumbuka and
a total denial of Nyanja. As such this section intends to show the extent to which the choice
of language influenced the formation of ethnic identities.
11 W. P. Livingstone, Laws of Livingstonia: A Narrative of Missionary Adventure and
Achievement, popular edition. [S. l.]: Hodder and Stoughton, 1923), 83.
12 Roderick J. MacDonald, “A History of African Education in Nyasaland, 1875-1945”
(University of Edinburgh, 1968), 13–15.
13 MacDonald, 13–15.