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184 MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES: OPERATIONAL DEFINITION AND SCALES

A Measure of Student Learning
An exam that measures learning in students (i.e., if they have grasped the con-
cept of motivation) would include the following questions (the particular dimen-
sions tapped are shown in parentheses):

1. Define the concept of motivation (recall).
2. State the various theories of motivation and explain them, giving examples
(understanding and recall).
3. In the beginning of the semester, the class was split into two debate teams,
one to argue for the manager’s role as a motivator, and the other that it is out-
side the province of a manager to motivate the employees. State three impor-
tant arguments advanced by each group (understanding and recall).
4. What is your viewpoint of the manager’s role as motivator? (understanding
and analysis).
5. Describe three different situations in which a manager of a work organization
would use equity theory, the expectancy theory, and job design to motivate
employees (application).
6. In the San Jose Camp case, how could Bob have been motivated to take inter-
est in the camp’s activities? Adequately defend your answer, citing the appro-
priate theories and why they are superior to some of the other possible
solutions (application, which subsumes understanding and retention).
7. How does motivation relate to leadership? How are both these concepts
related to a manager’s job? (understanding, retention, application).

Review of Operational Definition

We have thus far examined how to operationally define concepts and to frame
and ask questions that are likely to measure the concepts. Operational definitions
are necessary to measure abstract concepts such as those that usually fall into the
subjective areas of feelings and attitudes. More objective variables such as age or
educational level are easily measured through simple straightforward questions
and do not have to be operationally defined. Luckily, measures for many con-
cepts that are relevant in the organizational context have already been developed
by researchers. While you review the literature in a given area, you might want
to particularly note the reference that discusses the instrument used to tap the
concept in the study, and read it. The article will tell you when the measure was
developed, by whom, and for how long it has been in use. Only a well-devel-
oped instrument, which has been operationally defined with care, will be
accepted and frequently used by other researchers.

Now do Exercises 8.1 and 8.2.