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Notes
74. Freddie C. Colston, op. cit., p. 234.
75. See Herbert Aptheker,“Additional Data on American Maroons,” Journal of Negro His-
tory, vol. 32 (October 1947),pp. 452–460;Herbert Aptheker,“Maroons within the Pres-
ent Limits of the United States,”Maroon Societies:Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas,
2nd ed., ed. Richard Price (Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 1979); Bernard M. McCo-
mack, Slavery on the Tennessee Frontier, ed. C. Kelly and Dan E. Pomeroy (Nashville:Ten-
nessee American Revolution Bicentennial Commission, 1977); Gerald W. Mullin, Flight
and Rebellion: Slave Resistance in the Eighteenth-Century Virginia (New York: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1972).
76. See George Fishman, op. cit., p. 70.
77. St. Clair Drake,“The American Negro: Relation to Africa,” American Negro Leader-
ship Conference on Africa (Proceedings of the Conference),Washington, D.C., January
15–30, 1967.
78. See Leon Litwack, North of Slavery (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961).
79. See David R.Roediger,The Wages of Whiteness:Race and the Making of the American Work-
ing Class (London:Verso, 1991).
80. See L. Litwack, op. cit.;W. J. Moses, op. cit.; Howard Brotz, op. cit.; L. Litwack and A.
Meier, op. cit.
81. For further information, see Letitia Woods Brown, Free Negroes in the District of Colum-
bia, 1790–1846 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972); Luther Porter Jackson, Free
Negro Labor and Property Holding in Virginia, 1830–1860 (New York: D. Appleton-Cen-
tury,1942);John H.Franklin,The Free Negro in North Carolina,1790- 1860 (Chapel Hill:
University of North Carolina Press, 1943); Rhoda Golden Freeman, The Free Negro in
New York City in the Era before the Civil War (New York: Garland, 1994); Graham Hodges,
ed., Studies in African American History and Culture (New York: Garland, 1994); John Rus-
sell, The Free Negro in Virginia (New York: Negro University Press, 1969).
82. Rhoda Golden Freeman, ibid., p. 323.
83. John H. Bracey, August Meier, and Elliot Rudwick, Black Nationalism (New York:
Bobbs-Merril, 1970).
84. Asafa Jalata,“Two Liberation Movements Compared.” In colonial America, the differ-
ence between indentured White servants and African slaves was blurred since they
worked side by side, and the work of the former and that of the latter was similar.The
American Revolution brought White freedom and perpetuated Black slavery (except
for a few Blacks who were emancipated).Poor Whites became freemen,full citizens and
wage-earners. White workers were allowed to share public facilities, like schools and
workplaces, with powerful Whites.They were allowed to be culturally and structurally
assimilated into English culture despite their non-English national origin, and permit-
ted to own property and to have political freedom.Then poor Whites gradually devel-
oped the ideology of Whiteness or racial superiority and gained psychological and
material benefits by pushing down the weakest segment of American society, both freed
and enslaved Blacks.White workers embraced the white supremacist ideology specifi-
cally after the American Revolution with the change in their position when they be-
come wage workers. Roediger argues that “White labor does not just receive and resist
racist ideas but embraces, adopts and, at times, murderously acts upon those ideas.The
problem is not just that the white working class is at critical junctures manipulated into
racism, but that it comes to think of itself and its interests as white.” During slavery,
African Americans were mainly controlled and dominated by the White plantation
owners and after the abolition of slavery by White society and their institutions.
85. Richard F.America,Paying the Social Debt:What White America Owes Black America (West-
port, Conn.: Praeger, 1993), p. xi.
86. Jack M. Bloom, Class, Race, and the Civil Rights Movement (Bloomington: Indiana Uni-
versity Press, 1987), p. 22.